Evolution of the Proto-Tethys in the Baoshan block along the East Gondwana margin: constraints from early Palaeozoic magmatism

Zircon U–Pb ages and geochemical and isotopic data for Late Ordovician granites in the Baoshan Block reveal the early Palaeozoic tectonic evolution of the margin of East Gondwana. The granites are high-K, calc-alkaline, metaluminous to strongly peraluminous rocks with A/CNK values of 0.93–1.18, are enriched in SiO₂, K₂O, and Rb, and depleted in Nb, P, Ti, Eu, and heavy rare earth elements, which indicates the crystallization fractionation of the granitic magma. Zircon U–Pb dating indicates that they formed at ca. 445 Ma. High initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios of 0.719761–0.726754, negative ?_Nd(t) values of –6.6 to –8.3, and two-stage model ages of 1.52–1.64 Ga suggest a crustal origin, with the magmas derived from the partial melting of ancient metagreywacke at high temperature. A synthesis of data for the early Palaeozoic igneous rocks in the Baoshan Block and adjacent Tengchong Block indicates two stages of flare-up of granitic and mafic magmatism caused by different tectonic settings along the East Gondwana margin. Late Cambrian to Early Ordovician granitic rocks (ca. 490 Ma) were produced when underplated mafic magmas induced crustal melting along the margin of East Gondwana related to the break-off of subducted Proto-Tethyan oceanic slab. In addition, the cession of the mafic magmatism between late Cambrian-Early Ordovician and Late Ordovician could have been caused by the collision of the Baoshan Block and outward micro-continent along the margin of East Gondwana and crust and lithosphere thickening. The Late Ordovician granites in the Baoshan Block were produced in an extensional setting resulting from the delamination of an already thickened crust and lithospheric mantle followed by the injection of synchronous mafic magma.     

汉诺坝长英质麻粒岩包体同位素年代学及其地球动力学意义

汉诺坝地区周坝长英质麻粒岩包体的岩石学、地球化学特征指示它们部分为变沉积岩。从周坝麻粒岩相变沉积岩包体的 Sm- Nd同位素分析结果获得了 (424± 10) Ma的全岩-单矿物 Sm- Nd同位素等时线年龄。全岩 Sm- Nd同位素组成指示这些包体可能与地表出露的太古宙麻粒岩有亲缘关系，但二者的 Pb- Pb与 U- Pb锆石年龄又反映二者成因不同。周坝长英质麻粒岩包体可能为残留于大陆下地壳的古老物质。 424 Ma的 Sm- Nd年龄可能反映了与加里东运动时期蒙古板块向华北地台俯冲而发生的变质与再就位抬升作用。     

The Early Palaeozoic high-grade metamorphism at the active continental margin of West Gondwana in the Andes (NW Argentina/N Chile)

The evolution of the Early Palaeozoic orogen of West Gondwana in the Cambrian to Ordovician basement of the Andes between ~18° and 32° S is investigated for pressure and temperature conditions and age of metamorphism. It is characterized by mid-crust temperatures commonly above the wet granite solidus (~650°C). Widespread felsic migmatite and rare granulite formed at pressures of ca 0.5?C0.7?GPa, locally 1.0?GPa. These rocks represent the deepest exhumed sections of the Early Palaeozoic crust. High pressure?Clow temperature rocks are absent. The crystallization ages, compiled from the literature in combination with new data, for near peak metamorphic conditions of these high-grade metamorphic rocks in NW Argentina and N Chile are ~530?C500?Ma and ~470?C420?Ma. Both age groups are spatially overlapping. Radiogenic isotope signatures (Sr, Nd, Pb) are used to characterize the Early Palaeozoic basement. The Pb and Sr isotope compositions of the Early Palaeozoic basement indicate mixing arrays between pre-Palaeozoic unradiogenic and radiogenic crust. Crustal residence ages (Sm?CNd T_DM) indicate a prominent event of crust formation around ~2?Ga, which is known continent-wide. This material was recycled during Midproterozoic and Early Palaeozoic orogenies without prominent additions of new crust present in the isotope record, i.e. accretion of compositional exotic material is absent.     

Middle/Late Cambrian intracontinental rifting in the central West Sudetes,NE Bohemian Massif (Czech Republic): geochemistry and petrogenesis of the bimodal metavolcanic rocks

The Early Palaeozoic East Krkonoše Complex (EKC) situated in the central West Sudetes, NE Bohemian Massif, is a volcano‐sedimentary suite containing abundant mafic and felsic volcanics metamorphosed to greenschist facies. The trace element distribution patterns and Nd isotope signatures (E_Nd500 = + 3.1 to + 6.6) of the metabasites (metabasalts) indicate that they may be related to a rising mantle diapir associated with intracontinental rifting. At the early stage, limited melting of an upwelling asthenosphere produced alkali basalts and enriched tholeiites which compositionally resemble oceanic island basalts. A later stage of rifting with larger degrees of melting at shallower depths generated tholeiitic basalts with E‐MORB to N‐MORB characteristics. The values of (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i = 0.706 and E_Nd500 = − 5 ±1 of the porphyroids (metarhyolites) as well as the lack of rocks with intermediate compositions suggest that the felsic rocks were formed by a partial melting event of continental crust triggered by mantle melts. The geochemistry of the EKC bimodal metavolcanics and their association with abundant terrigenous metasediments suggest that the felsic–mafic volcanic suite was generated during intracontinental rifting. This process, widespread in Western and Central Europe during the Early Palaeozoic, is evidence of large‐scale fragmentation of the northern margin of the Gondwana supercontinent. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Composition and geochronology of the deep-seated xenoliths from the southeastern margin of the North China Craton

A variety of deep-seated xenoliths occur within the Mesozoic Jiagou dioritic porphyry in the southeastern margin of the North China Craton (NCC). In this study we present a combined petrologic, geochronological, Hf isotope and geochemical study on the different types of xenoliths and use these data to better constrain the composition and age of the deep crust beneath the area. Most of the xenoliths are mafic meta-igneous rocks, among which garnet-bearing lithologies are common. The xenoliths can be classified into three broad petrographic groups: spinel-bearing garnet clinopyroxenite/phlogopite clinopyroxenite/spinel pyroxenite (Group 1), garnet amphibolite or hornblendite/garnet granulite/mafic gneiss lacking pyroxene (Group 2), and garnet-bearing felsic (intermediate-acid) gneiss (Group 3). Among these, the mafic–ultramafic rocks constitute the dominant category. The protoliths of the studied xenoliths range from basalt through andesite to dacite. Geochemical and Hf-isotope data indicate that most xenoliths belonging to Groups 2 and 3 resemble magmatic rocks formed at convergent continental margin arc setting. A few of them (mostly belonging to Group 1) represent mantle-derived products. Multiple metasomatic imprints, with contribution from subduction-related or mantle-derived fluids or melts have been recognized from the multistage mineral assemblages and ages.SHRIMP zircon U–Pb dating, Hf isotope and geochemical data offer evidence for subduction-related adakite-like and arc-related rocks in the southeastern margin of the NCC at ca. 2.5 Ga and 2.1 Ga, and confirm the occurrence of high-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism at ca. 1.8 Ga. These data suggest an episodic growth of Precambrian lower crust beneath this region in response to two stages of subduction–accretion and one vertical accretion of mantle-derived basaltic magma at the base of the lower crust. Additionally, a previously unknown late mantle-derived basaltic magmatism at 393 ± 7 Ma has also been recognized. The data presented in this paper demonstrate that the deep crust beneath the southeastern margin of the NCC is composed of hybrid protoliths derived from Paleozoic, Paleoproterozoic and late Neoarchean sources.     

The crustal evolution of South America from a zircon Hf‐isotope perspective

Hf‐isotope data of >1100 detrital zircon grains from the Palaeozoic, south‐central Andean Gondwana margin record the complete crustal evolution of South America, which was the predominant source. The oldest grains, with crustal residence ages of 3.8–4.0 Ga, are consistent with complete recycling of existing continental crust around 4 Ga. We confirm three major Archaean, Palaeoproterozoic (Transamazonian) and late Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic crust‐addition phases as well as six igneous phases during Proterozoic to Palaeozoic time involving mixing of juvenile and crustally reworked material. A late Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic, Grenville‐age igneous belt can be postulated along the palaeo‐margin of South America. This belt was the basement for later magmatic arcs and accreted allochthonous microcontinents as recorded by similar crustal residence ages. Crustal reworking likely dominated over juvenile addition during the Palaeozoic era, and Proterozoic and Archaean zircon was mainly crustally reworked from the eroding, thickened Ordovician Famatinian arc.     

Nature and evolution of the lower crust under central Spain: Inferences from granulite xenoliths (Calatrava Volcanic Field-Spanish central system)

So far, the nature and evolution of the lower crust under central Spain have been constrained mainly on the basis of a heterogeneous suite of granulite xenoliths from the Spanish Central System (SCS). In recent years, ultramafic volcanics from the Calatrava Volcanic Field (CVF) have also provided deep-seated crustal xenoliths which have not been studied in detail. Our data, combining mineral, whole-rock and isotopic geochemistry with U–Pb–Hf isotope ratios in zircons from the CVF and SCS xenoliths, highlight the felsic composition of the lower crust under central Iberia. A number of the Calatrava xenoliths represents Variscan igneous protoliths, which are a minor population in the SCS, and were likely formed by crystallisation of intermediate and felsic melts in the lower crust during the Variscan orogeny (leucodiorite protolith age of 314 ± 3 Ma and leucogranite protolith age of 308 ± 2.5 Ma). U–Pb data of metamorphic zircons show that granulite-facies metamorphism mainly occurred from 299 to 285 Ma in both areas. These ages are slightly younger than those of granitic intrusions that could be genetically related to the granulitic residue, which points to a main role of U–Pb isotope resetting in lower crustal zircons during HT or UHT conditions. The zircon U–Pb–Hf isotopic ratios support the idea that the lower crust in central Iberia consists mainly of Ordovician–Neoproterozoic metaigneous and metasedimentary rocks associated with the Cadomian continental arc of northern Gondwana. These rocks provide evidence of mixing between juvenile magmas and an enriched crustal component, ultimately extracted from an Eburnean crust. Other more evolved components present in detrital zircons are likely related to recycling of Archean crust derived from North Africa cratonic terranes.     

北秦岭丹凤地区早古生代花岗岩的Pb、Sr、Nd同位素地球化学特征

通过对北秦岭丹凤地区早古生代花岗岩的Ｐｈ、Ｓｒ、Ｎｄ同位素地球化学特征的系统研究，结合元素地球化学特征，证明早古生代具成分极性的枣园、黄柏岔、石门花岗岩是由于秦岭群斜长角闪岩和黑云斜长片麻岩部分熔融，近俯冲带以熔体与熔体的混合、远离俯冲带是前者产生的熔体与后者熔融后的残留相以不同比例混合形成的。     

Isotopic constraints on crustal architecture and Permo‐Triassic tectonics in New Guinea: Possible links with eastern Australia

New U–Pb zircon ages and Sr–Nd isotopic data for Triassic igneous and metamorphic rocks from northern New Guinea help constrain models of the evolution of Australia's northern and eastern margin. These data provide further evidence for an Early to Late Triassic volcanic arc in northern New Guinea, interpreted to have been part of a continuous magmatic belt along the Gondwana margin, through South America, Antarctica, New Zealand, the New England Fold Belt, New Guinea and into southeast Asia. The Early to Late Triassic volcanic arc in northern New Guinea intrudes high‐grade metamorphic rocks probably resulting from Late Permian to Early Triassic (ca 260–240 Ma) orogenesis, as recorded in the New England Fold Belt. Late Triassic magmatism in New Guinea (ca 220 Ma) is related to coeval extension and rifting as a precursor to Jurassic breakup of the Gondwana margin. In general, mantle‐like Sr–Nd isotopic compositions of mafic Palaeozoic to Tertiary granitoids appear to rule out the presence of a North Australian‐type Proterozoic basement under the New Guinea Mobile Belt. Parts of northern New Guinea may have a continental or transitional basement whereas adjacent areas are underlain by oceanic crust. It is proposed that the post‐breakup margin comprised promontories of extended Proterozoic‐Palaeozoic continental crust separated by embayments of oceanic crust, analogous to Australia's North West Shelf. Inferred movement to the south of an accretionary prism through the Triassic is consistent with subduction to the south‐southwest beneath northeast Australia generating arc‐related magmatism in New Guinea and the New England Fold Belt.     

Geology of Pulikonda and Dancherla alkaline complexes,Andhra Pradesh

Geological studies on saturated to oversaturated and subsolvus aegirine-riebeckite syenite bodies of the Pulikonda alkaline complex and Dancherla alkaline complex were carried out. The REE distribution of the Dancherla syenite shows a high fractionation between LREE and HREE. The absence of Eu anomaly suggests source from garnet peridotite. The Pulikonda syenite shows moderate fractionation between LREE and HREE as reflected by enrichment of HREE and moderate enrichment of LREE. The negative Eu anomaly indicates role of plagioclase fractionation.Three distinct co-eval primary magmas i.e. mafic syenite-, felsic syenite- and alkali basalt magmas — all derived from low-degrees of partial melting of mantle differentiates and enriched metasomatised lower crust played a major role in the genesis and emplacement of the syenites into overlying crust along deep seated regional scale trans-lithospheric strike-slip faults and shear zones following immediately after late-Archaean calc-alkaline arc magmatism at different time-space episodes i.e. initially at craton margin and later on into the thickened interior of the Eastern Dharwar craton. The ductile sheared and folded Pulikonda alkaline complex was evolved dominantly from the magmas derived from partial melting of lower crust and minor juvenile magmas from mantle. Differentiation and fractionation by liquid immiscibility of mafic magma and commingling-mixing of intermediate and felsic magmas followed by fractionational crystallisation under extensional tectonics during waning stages of calc-alkaline arc magmatism nearer to the craton margin were attributed as the main processes for the genesis of Pulikonda syenite complex. Commingling and limited mixing of independent mantle derived mafic and felsic syenitic magmas and accompanying fractionation resulting into soda rich and potash rich syenite variants was tentatively deduced mechanism for the origin of Dancherla, Danduvaripalle, Reddypalle syenites and other bodies belonging to Dancherla alkaline complex at the craton interior. The Peddavaduguru syenite was formed by differentiation of alkali mafic magma (gabbro to diorite) and it’s simultaneous mingling with fractionated felsic syenitic magma under incipient rift. Vannedoddi and Yeguvapalli syenites were derived due to desilicification and accompanying alkali feldspar mestasomatism of younger potash rich granites along Guntakal-Gooty fault and along Singanamala shear zone respectively.     

Subduction,mega-shear systems and Late Palaeozoic basin development in the African segment of Gondwana

 Basins within the African sector of Gondwana contain a Late Palaeozoic to Early Mesozoic Gondwana sequence unconformably overlying Precambrian basement in the interior and mid-Palaeozoic strata along the palaeo-Pacific margin. Small sea-board Pacific basins form an exception in having a Carboniferous to Early Permian fill overlying Devonian metasediments and intrusives. The Late Palaeozoic geographic and tectonic changes in the region followed four well-defined consecutive events which can also be traced outside the study area. During the Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous period (up to 330 Ma) accretion of microplates along the Patagonian margin of Gondwana resulted in the evolution of the Pacific basins. Thermal uplift of the Gondwana crust and extensive erosion causing a break in the stratigraphic record characterised the period between 300 and 330 Ma. At the end of this period the Gondwana Ice Sheet was well established over the uplands. The period 260–300 Ma evidenced the release of the Gondwana heat and thermal subsidence caused widespread basin formation. Late Carboniferous transpressive strike-slip basins (e.g. Sierra Australes/Colorado, Karoo-Falklands, Ellsworth-Central Transantarctic Mountains) in which thick glacial deposits accumulated, formed inboard of the palaeo-Pacific margin. In the continental interior the formation of Zambesi-type rift and extensional strike-slip basins were controlled by large mega-shear systems, whereas rare intracratonic thermal subsidence basins formed locally. In the Late Permian the tectonic regime changed to compressional largely due to northwest-directed subduction along the palaeo-Pacific margin. The orogenic cycle between 240 and 260 Ma resulted in the formation of the Gondwana fold belt and overall north–south crustal shortening with strike-slip motions and regional uplift within the interior. The Gondwana fold belt developed along a probable weak crustal zone wedged in between the cratons and an overthickened marginal crustal belt subject to dextral transpressive motions. Associated with the orogenic cycle was the formation of mega-shear systems one of which (Falklands-East Africa-Tethys shear) split the supercontinent in the Permo-Triassic into a West and an East Gondwana. By a slight clockwise rotation of East Gondwana a supradetachment basin formed along the Tethyan margin and northward displacement of Madagascar, West Falkland and the Gondwana fold belt occurred relative to a southward motion of Africa. Received: 2 October 1995 / Accepted: 28 May 1996     

The lithosphere beneath the Sangilen Plateau, Siberia: evidence from peridotite, pyroxenite and gabbro xenoliths from alkaline basalts

Summary Ultramafic and mafic xenoliths in Ordovician Agardag alkaline basalt dikes from the Sangilen Plateau, southeastern Siberia, provide samples from the upper mantle and crust beneath central Asia. Three major groups were distinguished among the xenoliths: Group I xenoliths are spinel lherzolites, Group II xenoliths are spinel-garnet clinopyroxenites, and Group III comprises gabbroic xenoliths with two subgroups: Group IIIa comprises garnet bearing gabbroids and Group IIIb is represented by garnet-free gabbroids. The spinel lherzolite xenoliths represent the uppermost lithospheric mantle beneath the Sangilen Plateau and have geochemical characteristics similar to those of primitive mantle. Spinel-garnet clinopyroxenite and gabbroic xenoliths are of igneous origin and represent fragments of intrusive bodies crystallized at depths close to the mantle-crust boundary, as well as in the lower and the upper crust. The gabbroic xenoliths are evidently the crystallization products of melts similar in major and trace element composition to parental magma of the Bashkymugur gabbronorite-monzodiorite intrusion. Gabbroic xenoliths from the Ordovician Agardag alkaline basalt dikes demonstrate the presence of intermediate magmatic chambers within the crust beneath the Sangilen Plateau during the Early Palaeozoic. The relatively high equilibration temperatures of the mantle and lower crust xenoliths in the Agardag alkaline basalt dikes are largely attributable to a plume occurring beneath the Sangilen Plateau during the Ordovician.     

Petrogenesis and geodynamic implications of the Late Carboniferous felsic volcanics in the Bogda belt,Chinese Northern Tianshan

An integrated study on petrology and geochemistry has been carried out on the Late Carboniferous I-type felsic volcanics of the Liushugou Formation in the Bogda belt to constrain the late Paleozoic tectonic evolution of the Bogda belt. The felsic volcanics were dated to be 315 to 319 Ma and are composed of trachy-andesite–trachyte ignimbrites and rhyolite lavas. They are in conformable contact with high-Al basalt. The eruption of the felsic volcanics and high-Al basalt is not bimodal volcanism, but is related to bimodal magma (basaltic and rhyolitic magmas). MELTS modeling and comparison with previous basaltic melting experiments indicate that the felsic volcanics are likely produced by partial melting of hydrated mafic crust rather than fractional crystallization of high-Al basalt. It is also supported by relatively large amounts of felsic volcanics to high-Al basalts and remarkably different incompatible element ratios (e.g., Th/Zr, Nb/Zr and U/Zr) of the rocks. The Bogda felsic volcanics have positive ε_Nd(t) values (6.2–7.4), low Pb isotopes and low zircon saturation temperatures, consistent with a derivation from a juvenile crust in an arc setting. The intermediate ignimbrites display melting–mingling textures and abundant feldspar aggregates and have various δEu ratios, indicating that magma mingling and feldspar fractionation processes may have played an important role in the genesis of the ignimbrites. In contrast, the Early Permian felsic rocks in this region are of post-collisional A-type. We therefore propose that the Bogda belt was an island arc in the Late Carboniferous and then switched to a post-collisional setting in the Early Permian due to the arc–arc collision at the end of the Late Carboniferous.     

北秦岭丹凤地区早古生代花岗岩的Pb、Sr、Nd同位素地球化学特征

通过对北秦岭丹凤地区早古生代花岗岩的Ph、Sr、Nd同位素地球化学特征的系统研究,结合元素地球化学特征,证明早古生代具成分极性的枣园、黄柏岔、石门花岗岩是由于秦岭群斜长角闪岩和黑云斜长片麻岩部分熔融,近俯冲带以熔体与熔体的混合、远离俯冲带是前者产生的熔体与后者熔融后的残留相以不同比例混合形成的。     

High‐ to ultrahigh‐temperature metamorphism in the lower crust: An example resulting from Hikurangi Plateau collision and slab rollback in New Zealand

Lower crustal xenoliths erupted from an intraplate diatreme reveal that a portion of the New Zealand Gondwana margin experienced high‐temperature (HT) to ultrahigh‐temperature (UHT) granulite facies metamorphism just after flat slab subduction ceased at c. 110–105 Ma. P–T calculations for garnet–orthopyroxene‐bearing felsic granulite xenoliths indicate equilibration at ~815 to 910°C and 0.7 to 0.8 GPa, with garnet‐bearing mafic granulite xenoliths yielding at least 900°C. Supporting evidence for the attainment of HT and UHT conditions in felsic granulite comes from re‐integration of exsolution in feldspar (~900–950°C at 0.8 GPa), Ti‐in‐zircon thermometry on Y‐depleted overgrowths on detrital zircon grains (932°C ± 24°C at aTiO₂ = 0.8 ± 0.2), and correlation of observed assemblages and mineral compositions with thermodynamic modelling results (≥850°C at 0.7 to 0.8 GPa). The thin zircon overgrowths, which were mainly targeted by drilling through the cores of grains, yield a U–Pb pooled age of 91.7 ± 2.0 Ma. The cause of Late Cretaceous HT‐UHT metamorphism on the Zealandia Gondwana margin is attributed to collision and partial subduction of the buoyant oceanic Hikurangi Plateau in the Early Cretaceous. The halt of subduction caused the fore‐running shallowly dipping slab to rollback towards the trench position and permitted the upper mantle to rapidly increase the geothermal gradient through the base of the extending (former) accretionary prism. This sequence of events provides a mechanism for achieving regional HT–UHT conditions in the lower crust with little or no sign of this event at the surface.     

Phanerozoic magma underplating and crustal growth beneath the North China Craton

Evidence for post‐Archaean crustal growth via magma underplating is largely based on U–Pb dating of zircons from granulite‐facies xenoliths. However, whether the young zircons from such xenoliths are genetically related to magma underplating or to anatexis remains controversial. The lower‐crustal xenoliths carried by igneous rocks in the Chifeng and Ningcheng (North China Craton) have low SiO₂ and high MgO, indicating that parental melts of their protoliths were of unambiguous mantle origin. The xenoliths contain abundant magmatic zircons with late‐Palaeozoic ages, and have more radiogenic zircon Hf‐isotope compositions and hence younger model ages than ancient crustal magmas and the “reworking array” of the basement rocks. Our data suggest that the granulites represent episodic magmatic underplating to the lower crust of this craton in Phanerozoic time. Considering the observation that regional lowermost crust (~5 km) is mafic and characterized by Phanerozoic zircons, this work reports an example of post‐Archaean crustal growth via magma underplating.     

Granulite and pyroxenite xenoliths from the Deccan Trap: insight into the nature and composition of the lower lithosphere beneath cratonic India

Granulite and pyroxenite xenoliths in lamprophyre dykes intruded during the waning stage of Deccan Trap volcanism are derived from the lower crust beneath the Dharwar craton of Western India. The xenolith suite consists of plagioclase-poor mafic granulites (55% of the total volume of xenoliths), plagioclase-rich felsic granulites (25%), and ultramafic pyroxenites and websterites (20%) with subordinate wehrlites. Rare spinel peridotite xenoliths are also present, representing mantle lithosphere. The high Mg #, low SiO₂/Al₂O₃ and low Nb/La (<1) ratios suggest that the protoliths of the mafic granulites broadly represent cumulates of sub-alkaline magmas. All of the granulites are peraluminous and light rare-earth element-enriched. The felsic granulites may have resulted from anatexis of the mafic lower crustal rocks; thus, the mafic granulites are enriched in Sr whereas the felsic ones are depleted. Composite xenoliths consisting of mafic granulites traversed by veins of pyroxenite indicate intrusion of the granulitic lower crust by younger pyroxenites. Petrography and geochemistry of the latter (e.g. presence of phlogopite) indicate the metasomatised nature of the deep crust in this region.Thermobarometric estimates from phase equilibria indicate equilibration conditions between 650 and 1200 °C, 0.7-1.2 GPa suggestive of lower crustal environments. These estimates provide a spatial context for the sampled lithologies thereby placing constraints on the interpretation of geophysical data. Integration of xenolith-derived P-T results with Deep Seismic Soundings (DSS) data suggests that the pyroxenites and websterites are transitional between the lower crust and the upper mantle. A three-layer model for the crust in western India, derived from the xenoliths, is consistent with DSS data. The mafic nature of this hybrid lower crust contrasts with the felsic lower crustal composition of the south Indian granulite terrain.     

Lower crustal xenoliths from Junan,Shandong province and their bearing on the nature of the lower crust beneath the North China Craton

Geochronological, petrological and geochemical studies were performed on the granulite xenoliths from a Late Cretaceous basaltic breccia dike in Junan, Shandong province, eastern China. These xenoliths show close similarities to the Nushan granulite xenoliths from the southern margin of the North China Craton (NCC) and the Archean granulite terrains in terms of mineralogy and bulk rock compositions, but are quite different from the Hanuoba mafic granulite xenoliths from the northern NCC. In-situ zircon U–Pb age and Hf isotopic analyses, together with geochemical data reveal that the protolith of these xenoliths was formed around 2.3 Ga ago, through assimilation–fractional crystallization of a mafic magma. P–T conditions of these xenoliths suggest that the lower crust beneath the Junan region reaches to a depth of 35 km, which agree well with the result deduced from various geophysical methods. The consistent petrological and seismic Moho depths, the observed velocity structure and calculated velocity of these xenoliths imply the absence of underplating induced crust–mantle transition zone, which was well formed in the northern NCC. Compared to 40–50 km depth of the lower crust in Early Jurassic, the lower crust beneath Junan extended to a depth of 30 km in Late Cretaceous, suggesting that the lower crust of NCC was significantly thinned during Late Mesozoic.     

The Phanerozoic Reconstitution of Indian Shield as the Aftermath of Break-up of the Gondwanaland

The Indian crust, generally regarded as a stable continental lithosphere, experienced significant tectono-thermal reconstitution during the Phanerozoic. The earliest Phanerozoic tectonic process, which grossly changed the geological and geophysical character of the Precambrian crust, was during the Jurassic when this crustal block broke up from the Gondwana Supercontinent. There were two earlier abortive attempts to fragment the supercontinent in the Palaeozoic. Different types of geological processes were associated with these aborted events. The first was the intrusion of anorogenic alkali granites during the Early Palaeozoic (at 500±50 Ma), while the second was linked with formation of the Gondwana rift basins during Late Palaeozoic. The tectonic history of the Indian Shield subsequent to its separation from the Gondwanaland at around 165 Ma is a complex account of its northward journey, which was culminated with its collision with the northern continental blocks producing the mighty Himalayas in the process. Considerable reconstitution of the Indian Shield took place due to magma underplating when this lithospheric block passed over the four mantle plumes. While the underplating events grossly changed the geophysical character of the Indian Shield in isolated patches, the propagation of the underplated materials was assisted by the deep crustal fractures (geomorphologically expressed as lineaments), which formed during the break-up of the Gondwanaland. Several of these deep fractures evolved through the reactivation of the pre-existing (Precambrian) tectonic grains, while some others developed as new fractures in response to either the extensional stresses generated during the supercontinental break-up or the plume-lithosphere reactions. Significant geomorphological changes occurred in peninsular India subsequent to the continental collision. Most of these changes were brought about by the movements along the lineaments, which fragmented the Indian Shield into a number of rigid crustal blocks. The present day seismic behaviour of the Indian Shield is a reflection of movements of the rigid crustal blocks relative to each other. An interesting feature of the Phanerozoic geological history of the Indian Shield is the evolution of a number of sedimentary basins under different tectono-thermal regimes.     

The nature of the Palaeozoic oceanic basin at the southwestern margin of Gondwana and implications for the origin of the Chilenia terrane (Pichilemu region,central Chile)

The Coastal Accretionary Complex of central Chile constitutes the product of early Carboniferous to Late Triassic subduction at the rear of Chilenia, a continental terrane likely derived from Laurentia and accreted to southwestern margin of Gondwana during the Mid to Late Devonian. The complex contains basaltic metavolcanic sequences of the subducted oceanic lithosphere accreted to the active margin. In this paper, we address the tectonic setting of these rocks by means of a geochemical study in the coastal area of Pichilemu region, central Chile. The accreted fragments of oceanic crust occupy different structural levels, exhibit variable metamorphic grade, and have geochemical fingerprints that reveal a compositional heterogeneity of the subducted oceanic crust. The amphibolites have N to E-MORB compositions. Greenschist units include N-MORB and E-MORB transitional to OIB, and blueschists and greenschists interleaved within a single metavolcanosedimentary sequence have OIB signatures. Neodymium isotopic systematics indicate depleted and enriched mantle sources, whereas strontium isotopic systematics indicate seawater/rock interaction. The variety of rocks suggests formation in an oceanic setting characterized by shallow and deep mantle sources, such as plume-influenced ridge. Based on the geological, petrological, geochemical, and isotopic characteristics, we propose that the metavolcanic protoliths of the Pichilemu region formed relatively close to the western margin of the Chilenia terrane during the initial stage (late Cambrian–Early Devonian) of seafloor development and drifting of this continental block. Geochemical similarities with oceanic units accreted to the active margin south of the Pichilemu region indicate a regional pattern of the oceanic crust subducted under the Palaeozoic Chilean margin between, at least, 34°S and 39°S latitude, strongly supporting the activity of a mantle plume. This, in turn, can be correlated with the location of the Pacific plume generation zone in early Palaeozoic era, corroborating a Laurentian origin for the Chilenia terrane.