Soil erosion and management recommendations at three State Vehicular Recreation areas,California

Off-road vehicle (ORV) impact on the landscape includes the destruction of protective vegetative cover, soil compaction, and increased runoff followed by increased erosion. An investigation of three State Vehicular Recreation Areas (SVRAs) in arid regions of California have documented 10-to 25-fold increases in sediment yield relative to nearby undisturbed basins. Soil texture and slope length are the dominant factors controlling soil erodibility in these areas. Organic carbon content of the soil exposed in hillclimb gullies was comparable to C horizon values of undisturbed soil profiles demonstrating a significant (70%) loss of soil fertility due to accelerated erosion. Soil erosion can be minimized and lifespan of these recreational areas prolonged by initiating and enforcing some critical management policies, including careful control over location and length of hillclimb, rotating use areas such that rehabilitation or revegetation is feasible, and seasonal use restrictions.     

岩溶地区不同利用方式土壤土力学特性垂直变化特征

以黔中岩溶地区不同利用方式的土壤为研究对象,采用野外调查和室内试验相结合的方法,研究了土壤黏聚力c、内摩擦角φ及紧实度随不同土壤利用方式、不同土层深度的变化特征。结果表明:土壤黏聚力c总体随土层深度不断增大,在0-35 cm内受不同土壤利用方式的影响比较明显;土壤内摩擦角φ在0-50 cm土层内,呈“S”形变化,受母质影响显著,三种不同土壤利用方式总体变化趋势基本一致;林地、灌草地、坡耕地土壤在垂直剖面上都存在着上松下紧的状况,在0-20 cm内,坡耕地土壤紧实度均小于林地和灌草地,20 cm以下坡耕地和灌草地土壤紧实度基本一致,但均大于林地,三者均保持着不断增大的趋势。研究表明:植被生长对于改善土壤力学性能具有一定的影响。因而通过加强植被保护与管理和调整坡耕地利用方式是改善土壤力学性能,防治土壤侵蚀和控制石漠化的主要手段。      

Pasture degradation effects on soil quality indicators at different hillslope positions in a semiarid region of western Iran

A study was made to determine the influence of pasture degradation on soil quality indicators that included physical, chemical, biological and micromorphological attributes, along the hillslope positions in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, western Iran. Soil samples from different slope positions were collected from 0 to 30 cm depth for physical and chemical properties and from 0 to 15 cm depth for biological properties at two adjacent sites in the two ecosystems: natural pasture and cultivated land. Soil quality indicators including bulk density, mean weight diameter, soil organic carbon (SOC), particulate organic material (POM) in aggregate fractions, total nitrogen, available potassium, available phosphorus, cation exchange capacity, soil microbial respiration (SMR) and microbial biomass C and N were determined. The results showed that SOC decreased cultivation from 1.09 to 0.77 % following pasture degradation. The POM decreased by about 19.35 % in cultivated soils when compared to natural pasture; also, SMR and microbial biomass C and N decreased significantly following pasture degradation. Furthermore, aggregate stability and pore spaces decreased, and bulk density increased in the cultivated soils. Overall, our results showed that long-term cultivation following pasture degradation led to a decline in soil quality in all selected slope positions at the site studied in the semiarid region.     

Analysis of Swelling and Shrinkage Behavior of Compacted Clays

The impact of the variation in compaction condition on the swelling and shrinkage behavior of three soils has been examined. Two natural soils, namely red soil and black cotton soil, and one artificially mixed soil sample of commercial bentonite with well-graded sand, were studied. Compaction curve for Standard Proctor conditions were plotted and four compaction conditions were selected. Experimental results showed that clay mineralogy dominates over compaction conditions in influencing the swelling and shrinkage behavior of the tested soils. Monitoring of void ratio (e)−water content (w) relations during shrinkage showed that soil specimens generally shrunk in three distinct linear stages. A small reduction in void ratio occurred on reduction in water content during the first shrinkage stage and was termed as initial shrinkage. In second stage, void ratio decreased rapidly with reduction in water content and was termed as primary shrinkage. In third and final stage, reduction in water content is accompanied by a marginal change in void ratio and it’s called residual shrinkage. Irrespective of initial compaction conditions studied, the transition from primary to residual shrinkage for all the specimens occurred within a narrow range of water content (10–15%).     

Impacts of vehicles on natural terrain at seven sites in the San Francisco Bay area

The impacts of off-road vehicles on vegetation and soil were investigated at seven representative sites in the San Francisco Bay area. Plant cover of grass and chaparral (with shrubs to 4 m tall) have been stripped by the two- and four-wheel vehicles in use. Impacts on loamy soils include increased surface strength (as much as 275 bars), increased bulk density (averaging 18%) to depths of 90 cm or more, reduction of soil moisture by an average 43% to 30 cm depths, greatly reduced infiltration, extension of the diurnal temperature range by as much as 12°C, and reduction of organic carbon by an average 33% in exposed soils. Very sandy soils respond similarly to vehicular use except that moisture is increased and surface strength of beach sand is decreased. These physical and chemical impacts reduce the land's capability of restoring its vegetative cover, which in turn adversely affects animal populations. Both the loss of plant cover and the physical changes caused by vehicles promote erosion. Measured soil and substrate losses from vehicular use zones range from 7 to 1180 kg/m². The estimated erosion rate of the Chabot Park site exceeds the rate of erosion considered a serious problem by a factor 30, it exceeds United States Soil Conservation Service tolerance values by a factor of 46, and it exceeds average San Francisco Bay area erosion rates by a factor of 17. The resulting soil losses are effectively permanent. Neither the increased sediment yield nor the increased runoff is accomodated on the sites of use, and both are causing adverse effects to neighboring properties.     

冲击碾压模拟试验设备研制

冲击压路机已大量用于各种原位地基土以及填土的压实处理,压实深度明显大于传统压路机和平板压实设备。但冲击压路机在冲击碾压过程中的能量传递过程、土中应力和位移的分布情况等尚不清楚。为探讨冲击碾压加固地基的机制和加固效果的主要影响因素,研制了冲击碾压模拟试验设备。该设备主要由模型箱、模型冲击轮、简易缓冲装置以及支架与牵引系统四部分组成,其中核心组成部分是具有不同外接圆尺寸大小和质量的三边形模型冲击轮。模型冲击轮可通过牵引系统中电机的牵引作用,在试验土体表面沿直线滚动,对土体施加冲击碾压作用。采用该设备进行了不同尺寸的模型冲击轮冲击碾压砂土的模型试验,并采用直径为2.5 cm的小型静力触探仪对冲击碾压加固效果进行检测。结果表明：该试验设备可用于实现对非圆形冲击轮冲击压实土体过程的模拟,同时显示冲击轮尺寸对冲碾加固效果的影响与冲碾遍数有关,且该影响在不同深度的土体中会有不同的响应,增大冲击轮的尺寸可以在土体的浅层深度范围内获得更好的加固效果。     

Spatial variability of reconstructed soil properties and the optimization of sampling number for reclaimed land monitoring in an opencast coal mine

Drastically disturbed soils caused by opencast mining can result in the severe loss of soil structure and increase in soil compactness. To assess the effects of mining activities on reconstructed soils and to track the changes in reclaimed soil properties, the variability of soil properties (soil particle distribution, penetration resistance (PR), pH, and total dissolved salt (TDS)) in the Shanxi Pingshuo Antaibao opencast coal-mine inner dump after dumping and before reclamation was analyzed using a geostatistics method, and the number of soil monitoring points after mined land reclamation was determined. Soil samples were equally collected at 78 sampling sites in the study area with an area of 0.44 km². Soil particle distribution had moderate variability, except for silt content at the depth of 0–20 cm with a low variability and sand content at the depth of 20–40 cm with a high variability. The pH showed a low variability, and TDS had moderate variability at all depths. The variability of PR was high at the depth of 0–20 cm and moderate at the depth of 20–40 cm. There was no clear trend in the variance with increasing depth for the soil properties. Interpolation using kriging displayed a high heterogeneity of the reconstructed soil properties, and the spatial structure of the original landform was partially or completely destroyed. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) can be used to determine the number of sampling points for soil properties, and 40 is the ideal sampling number for the study site based on cross-validation.     

The Chemistry of Serpentine Soils Developed Over A Podiform Chromite Deposit, Western Sierra Nevada, USA

The Chinese Camp mining district in the western Sierra Nevada of California,USA,contains a serpentinized,ultramafic dunite intrusion with podiform chromite deposits.Serpentine soils have developed over this intrusion,creating a unique ecosystem of endemic vegetation and soils characterized by low Ca/Mg ratios and high Ni and Cr contents.The vegetation and red coloration make it easy to visually distinguish between soils developed over intruded,serpentinized bedrock and unmineralized,adjacent andesite bedrock(Fig.1).The purpose of our study was to compare soil chemistry and vegetative parameters among 3 study-design levels:1)undisturbed serpentine soil,2)undisturbed background soil(non-serpentine,developed over andesite),and 3)serpentine soil disturbed by mining activities.Within each of these l e v*e ls,3 random locations were chosen where weestablished 3,30-m transects(spaced 120-degrees apart).One soil sample was collected at a random location along each transect(0-15 cm depth after removing litter/O horizon).This scheme resulted in the collection of 9replicate soil samples per study-design level.Samples were analyzed for total metal content by ICP-AES/MS(inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy/mass spectroscopy),p H,electrical conductivity,and total C/N/S.The vegetative parameter of%canopy cover was measured with a line-point intercept survey along each transect,using 0.6m intervals.Above-ground net primary productivity(ANPP)was estimated by harvesting all aboveground living plant material within a 0.5 m quadrant at 3 random locations along each transect,drying,and weighting the material.Significant differences among design levels were observed for ANPP,canopy cover,total P,total N,and Ca/Mg,where the median values for these parameters decreased in the order undisturbed backgroundundisturbed serpentinemining-disturbed serpentine.The highest concentrations of Cr and Ni were found in undisturbed serpentine(medians of 1960 ppm and 2529ppm,respectively)followed by mining-disturbed serpentine(medians of 420 and 2120,respectively)then undisturbed non-serpentine(medians 47.0 and 32.2 ppm,respectively).Soil p H varied significantly among the design levels with a median 5.74 in undisturbed background,median 6.25 in undisturbed serpentine,and median of 7.17 in mining-disturbed serpentine.These data document the distinct differences in soil chemistry and vegetation parameters between undisturbed serpentine soil and adjacent,undisturbed background soil.Efforts toward mining reclamation must recognize these differences and include the correct baseline conditions in the reclamation plan.     

天津滨海地区晚新生代地层自然固结与地面沉降研究

天津滨海地区地处渤海湾西岸,晚新生代沉积了巨厚的松散沉积物。地下水位下降、地层自然固结、地表载荷的加速增长等复合因素造成了严重的地面沉降。利用在天津滨海新区塘沽地区施工的一眼1 226 m全取芯钻孔,通过原状样品测试分析,系统研究了晚新生代土层的物理力学性质、黏性土固结特征,并结合欠固结黏性土层沉降量计算等方法阐述了土层固结状态空间特征,探讨了土层固结特征与地面沉降的相关关系。结果表明：该地区0～100 m深度土层具有低天然密度、高孔隙比、高含水率、高压缩性等特点,表现出软土的性质,在地表荷载增大的情况下,易发生地面沉降;100～550 m的黏性土大都处于超固结和微超固结状态,主要是由于过去地下水的大量开采造成的;550 m以下的黏性土多为正常固结,局部存在欠固结黏性土夹层。钻孔中存在合计约218 m的欠固结黏性土夹层,这些欠固结黏性土夹层在自重应力下的最终沉降量为1 985 mm,沉降量最大的土层对应于第1、6含水组,分别达614 mm和665 mm,这一沉降过程完成所需时间为数十年甚至上百年。     

Compressibility of natural soils subjected to long-term acidic contamination

This paper presents the results of a systematic analysis aimed at establishing whether acidic pore fluids can affect the properties of natural soils, in particular their compressibility. Marine deposits with different mineral compositions and undisturbed soil structure were collected for this research from three coastal areas in Japan. Pleistocene clays from the Osaka and Ariake Bays were obtained from boreholes at a depth of more than 10 m, whereas the Kawasaki mud, a relatively young deposit of Holocene, was dredged from the bed of the Tokyo Bay. Soil specimens were placed in special containers, which were designed to reproduce the process of long-term soil–water–chemical interaction, and leached with solutions of sulfuric acid for different periods of time, ranging from 1 to 9 months. At the end of each time interval, standard compression tests were performed to study the behavior of soil in an acidic environment. It was found that clay mineralogy and soil structure had a significant effect on the compressibility of clays at low pH. In the case of the Osaka and Ariake clays, the compressibility significantly increased with a decrease in pH values, a finding that was primarily attributed to changes in the soil’s structure. In contrast, the effect of acidic leaching on the properties of Kawasaki mud was observed to be the opposite. Laboratory data showed that in acidic medium the compressibility of soil decreased presumably due to the collapse of the diffuse double layer.     

Relationship between soil erosion, slope, parent material, and distance to road (Case study: Latian Watershed, Iran)

Soil erosion is the dominating factor of damaging roads in Iran. Roads are a critical component of civilization. Developing and maintaining the economic activity that is vital for the quality of modern life would be difficult without roads. Accelerated erosion and increased sediment yields resulting from changes in land use are critical environmental problems, and one of the important changes is road construction. Construction and condition of roadways are associated with direct and indirect impacts on soil erosion. This paper presents the relationship between soil erosion and some characteristics such as distance to roadway, slope, and parent material in Latian Watershed, Tehran Province, Iran. Soil erosion map was interpreted using aerial photos and GIS technology. Buffer zones, subdivided into 12 strips, each 0.2 km wide, which were located alongside roadway. The distribution patterns of various types of erosion were also identified by GIS by overlaying road buffer strips and soil erosion map. The results show that soil erosion landform such as land slide, badland, bank erosion, channel erosion, etc. found in buffer zones along both sides of roads.     

强夯法在城市防洪工程地基加固中的应用研究

对宜宾城市防洪工程中粉土地基强夯加固效果进行了检测,其结果表明：采用1 600 kN ? m夯击能,其有效加固深度大于6 m,地基土的干密度得到了明显增加,平均值从天然地基的1.48 g/cm3增加到强夯后的1.57 g/cm3,增幅达到6.1 %;粉土层的孔隙比平均值从0.852减小到0.724;地基土的压缩模量平均值从5.42 MPa提高到8.27 MPa;渗透系数算术平均值降低到天然地基的1/10以下,即从2.5×10-4 cm/s降低到3.5×10-6 cm/s;天然地基标准贯入击数有32.9 %小于5击,强夯以后,击数全部大于7击。粉土地基经过强夯处理,满足了防洪堤地基的承载力和渗透稳定要求,消除了7度地震液化势。     

Soil conditions in damaged North Queensland mangroves

Selected physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soils in mechanically damaged North Queensland mangrove forests were examined and compared with undisturbed controls. Soils in nine forests were tested in a factorial sampling programme designed to examine effects of (i) severity of mechanical damage to forests (severely damaged: trees removed and soils disrupted by bulldozing; versus damaged: trees felled no bulldozing; versus controls: trees and soils undisturbed), (ii) soil depth, (iii) forests (10s–100s km apart), and (iv) sites within forests (10s–100s m apart). Characteristics examined were soil compaction, grain size, pH, percent by weight of total C, N, P, K, S, and Fe and the density of crab burrows. Three of the 10 variables examined: total N, total P, and density of crab holes, decreased with mechanical damage to forests. The loss of potentially-limiting nutrients and of an important bioturbator at severely damaged sites suggests the need for further experimental investigation of soil characteristics with respect to natural regeneration and efforts of mangrove restoration.     

Some remarks on the coefficient of earth pressure at rest in compacted sandy gravel

In compacted coarse-grained materials, the stress state is largely influenced by the compaction procedure and by the characteristics of the single grains (mineralogy, shape). In this work, two compacted sandy gravels with the same grading but different grain properties have been tested in a large soft oedometer to highlight this influence. In the first part of the paper, the effect of oedometric ring deformability on the stress state is quantified in the framework of elastoplasticity. It is then shown that, for the adopted apparatus and for the tests carried out, the error in the measurement of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest K ₀ caused by ring deformability is very small. The two tested materials, compacted by wet tamping, behave differently because of their different grain properties, showing, respectively, small and large grain breakage. In primary loading, the more crushable material has values of K ₀ that compare well with Jaky’s (J Soc Hungarian Archit Eng 355–358, 1944) equation at any stress level and for every tested soil density. For the material with stronger grains, only very loose specimens that have undergone little or no compaction have a similar behaviour, while the denser specimens show the typical behaviour of overconsolidated soils, with values of K ₀ initially larger than that suggested by Jaky (J Soc Hungarian Archit Eng 355–358, 1944) for normally consolidated soils, tending to it only at the largest applied stress values. By considering the complex combined effect of tamping and grain crushing on the stress state and on the overconsolidation ratio of the soil at the end of compaction, these experimental evidences have been qualitatively explained.     

Potassium leaching in undisturbed soil cores following surface applications of gypsum

Displacement studies on leaching of potassium (K⁺) were conducted under unsaturated steady state flow conditions in nine undisturbed soil columns (15.5 cm in diameter and 25 cm long). Pulses of K⁺ applied to columns of undisturbed soil were leached with distilled water or calcium chloride (CaCl₂) at a rate of 18 mm h⁻¹. The movement of K⁺ in gypsum treated soil leached with distilled water was at a similar rate to that of the untreated soil leached with 15 mM CaCl₂. The Ca²⁺ concentrations in the leachates were about 15 mM, the expected values for the dissolution of the gypsum. When applied K⁺ was displaced with the distilled water, K⁺ was retained in the top 10–12.5 cm depth of soil. In the undisturbed soil cores there is possibility of preferential flow and lack of K⁺ sorption. The application of gypsum and CaCl₂ in the reclamation of sodic soils would be expected to leach K⁺ from soils. It can also be concluded that the use of sources of water for irrigation which have a high Ca²⁺ concentration can also lead to leaching of K⁺ from soil. Average effluent concentration of K⁺ during leaching period was 30.2 and 28.6 mg l⁻¹ for the gypsum and CaCl₂ treated soils, respectively. These concentrations are greater than the recommended guideline of the World Health Organisation (12 mg K⁺ l⁻¹).     

The efficiency of artificial materials used for erosion control on steep slopes

This study investigates the performance of artificial materials used for erosion control on steep slopes under high rainfall intensity. Soil samples were laid on a 300 × 100 cm platform inclined at either 35° or 45°, after which the soil was covered with various materials and subjected to a rainfall intensity of 130 mm/h for an hour. A wooden-block net covered with a jute net resulted in the greatest erosion resistance, providing 83% resistance at 35° and 76% at 45°. On the 35° slope, the artificial materials showed relatively good erosion resistance. As the slope was raised to 45°, some of the materials did not attach effectively to the soil surface. Thus, the runoff velocity increased and erosion became severe. For optimum erosion resistance, the material used to protect soil must attach to the soil surface well and have structural properties, such as a high coverage ratio to reduce the impact of rainfall on the soil and uniformly distributed transverse structures to reduce runoff energy and trap soil.     

Analysis of resistivity data obtained from cone penetrometer in contaminated soil layers

In horizontally layered soils of different electrical properties, electrical potential distribution becomes complex and the obtained resistivity data may be limited in reflecting the actual soil profile. Thus the objective of this study was to identify the factors that affect resistivity measurement on the cone penetrometer and further investigate the sensitivity of measured resistivity to different types and concentrations of contaminants at the subsurface level. First, a theoretical resistivity equation was derived to provide a means of computing the geometric factor. The effective volume of measurement on the cone penetrometer was investigated and laboratory soil box tests verified the dominance of partially high resistivity regions within the effective volume of measurement over the apparent resistivity. Such effect was found to lead to possible discrepancies between the recorded resistivity data and the actual depth of measurement. Measurements on contaminated soil layers indicated that resistivity cones are efffective in delineating inorganic contaminants in soils of high water contents, and detecting NAPLs floating above the groundwater table provided that soils adjacent to the plume are not dry of water. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Application of Piezoceramic Elements for Determining Elastic Properties of Soils

Elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of soils are two important parameters required for safe design of various civil engineering structures. The elastic modulus and shear modulus of the soils are generally obtained from the resonant column, torsional shear tests and geophysical methods. Though, from these parameters the Poisson’s ratio can be determined, these tests are quite elaborate, cumbersome, time consuming and require skilled manpower particularly for data interpretation. Moreover, direct determination of the Poisson’s ratio by employing micro-strain gauges, which measure axial and lateral strains using Wheatstone bridge circuits, is difficult for soils due to the problems associated with their fixing on the surface of the sample. Under these circumstances, application of piezoceramic elements, which can generate shear and compression waves, seems to be an excellent alternative. Using these wave velocities, the Poisson’s ratio can be computed easily and precisely. However, how this (computed) value of the Poisson’s ratio compares vis-à-vis that obtained from the conventional triaxial tests (i.e., strain controlled uniaxial compression tests), which yield stress–strain relationship, needs to be established. With this in view, investigations were conducted on soils of different types (clays and sands) in their disturbed and undisturbed forms by resorting to piezoceramic tests and the triaxial tests. Details of the methodology are presented in this paper and it has been demonstrated that application of piezoceramic elements yields the Poisson’s ratio and the elastic modulus of the soils quite easily, particularly for the soft clays and sands.     

Compaction characteristics of granular soils in United Arab Emirates

Most of the topsoils encountered in United Arab Emirates and in the Arabian Peninsula are granular soils with small percentages of silt and clay. Determination of the compaction characteristics of such soils is an essential task in preparing for construction work. The accumulating experience over many years of soil testing in our laboratories suggested that there exists an underlying trend that governs the compaction characteristics of such soils. As such, a study was undertaken to assess the compaction characteristics of such soils and to develop the governing predictive equations. For the purposes of this study, 311 soil samples were collected from various locations in the United Arab Emirates, and tested for various including grain-size distribution, liquid limit, plasticity index, specific gravity of soil solids, maximum dry density of compaction, and optimum moisture content following ASTM D 1557-91 standard procedure C. Following the development of the predictive equations, a new set of 43 soil samples were collected and their compaction results were used to test the validity of predictive model. The range of variables for these soils were as follows: percent retained on US sieve #4 (R#4): 0–68; Percent passing US sieve #200 (P#200): 1–26; Liquid limit: 0–56; Plasticity index: 0–28; Specific gravity of soil solids: 2.55–2.8. Based on the compaction tests results, multiple regression analyses were conducted to develop mathematical models and nomographic solutions to predict the compaction properties of soils. The results indicated that the nomographs could predict well the maximum dry density within ±5% confidence interval and the optimum moisture content within ±3%. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Effects of gully erosion and gully filling on soil depth and crop production in the black soil region, northeast China

Gully erosion is a very serious problem in the black soil region of northeast China. Gully filling is often adopted for controlling gully erosion by local farmers and thus causes more serious soil erosion. In this study an ephemeral gully (EG, 74 m) and a classical gully (CG, 52 m) connected at the gully’s headcut were selected as the study site. Two comparisons were made to explore the effects of gully erosion and the subsequent gully filling on soil depth and soybean yield: (1) soil depth between 81 sample points in the study site and 11 reference points along the same slope with the gully; (2) soybean yield between 81 sample points in the study site and 30 baseline locations near the study site. The results indicated that gully erosion caused the reduction of soil depth and soybean yield. Although filling gullies with soil from adjacent areas seemed to be an expedient way to remediate the gullies, it resulted in substantial soybean yield reduction. Gully erosion reduced the soil depth and soybean yield in 74.4 and 83.9 % of the study site, respectively. The soybean yield reduction ratio was 34.5 % for the whole study site and 2.6 % for the black soil region. Soil depth was the most important soil property indicator to reduce yield. Every 1 cm decrease in soil depth in the areas adjacent to gullies due to infilling activities resulted in a 2 % decrease in yield. More significant was the deposition of sediment from gully erosion, which completely eliminated soybean yield. Currently, effective soil and water conservation measures are not known and adopted by local farmers extensively. In the future, once some measures for preventing soil erosion, in particular gully erosion, were proved effective, these technologies should be disseminated among local farmers.