A viscoelastic shear zone model of compressional and extensional plate boundaries

A model is proposed describing the mechanical evolution of a shear zone along compressional and extensional plate boundaries, subject to constant strain rate. The shear zones are assumed as viscoelastic with Maxwell rheology and with elastic and rheological parameters depending on temperature and petrology. Stress and strain are computed as functions of time and depth. For both kinds of boundaries the model reproduces the existence of a shallow seismogenic zone, characterized by a stress concentration. The thickness of the seismogenic layer is evaluated considering the variations of shear stress and frictional strength on faults embedded in the shear zone. Assuming that a fault dislocation takes place, the brittle-ductile transition is assumed to occur at the depth at which the time derivative of total shear stress changes from positive to negative values. The effects of different strain rates and geothermal gradients on the depth of the brittle-ductile transition are studied. The model predictions are consistent with values inferred from seismicity data of different boundary zones.     

青藏高原中南部岩石圈扩张应力场与羊八井地热异常形成机制

青藏高原中南部地区有着丰富的地热资源,其中羊八井地区存在着温度高达93℃以上,热流值高达364mW/m2的地热奇观.本文利用国际以及中国地震台网资料,详细分析了青藏高原中南部地震活动性和岩石圈脆性破裂深度范围,进而讨论了高地热异常区的岩石圈应力场背景及其动力学机制.研究结果表明,青藏高原地热异常区有高于高原内部平均活动水平的震级为6级左右的中强地震活动,其震中分布呈现出与地热活动相似的、沿近南北向断陷带的带状特征;并且在高热流区域内有高原内部罕见的中深地震活动,地震震源从100km左右深处到地表呈现柱状地震群活动的空间分布等特征.震源机制与应力场研究结果表明,虽然高原中南部应力场主压、主张应力方向与青藏高原的整体特征相符,但是地震发生类型与青藏高原周缘的挤压逆断层型地震完全不同,均属于东西向扩张力作用下的正断层型地震活动,特别是在羊八井高热流区域附近,东西向扩张应力场在岩石圈应力场中起到主导性作用,推测其控制深度可达岩石圈底部100多公里处.青藏高原地热异常区在强烈的近东西向扩张应力场作用下,岩石圈东西向扩张并发生一系列的大规模正断层活动,致使深部软流圈高温热流可以沿着活动正断层及其形成的深裂隙上涌,穿过岩石圈到达地表面,形成了高地热异常区.     

Interaction between shallow and subcrustal dislocations on a normal fault

We propose a model which may explain seismic sequences which are often observed in seismogenic regions, as for example in the Apenninic chain (Italy). In particular, we consider a normal fault and earthquakes taking place at different depths: a first shock in a shallower layer and a second in a deeper one. The normal fault is embedded in a viscoelastic half-space. As a consequence of the rheology, there are two different brittle layers, a shallower and a deeper one, where earthquakes can nucleate. Between these two layers, the rheological behavior is ductile. The thicknesses of the layers depend on the geothermal profile that is calculated taking into account the profile of the thermal and rheological parameters with depth. The fault plane, crossing layers with different rheological behavior, is heterogeneous in respect to the slip style: seismic in the brittle layers, aseismic in the ductile layer. Dislocations in the shallower layer are assumed to produce aseismic slip in the area of the fault belonging to the ductile layer. The stress concentrated, by the seismic and aseismic dislocations, on the fault plane section in the deeper brittle layer is evaluated. It is compared with the tectonic stress rate in order to calculate how much earlier the second earthquake would occur compared to if just the bare tectonic sstress was acting. It results that such an advance is comparable with typical recurrence times of earthquakes and so a mechanism of interaction between different seismic sources, mediated by aseismic slip, can be supposed. The strains and displacements at the Earth’s surface due to seismic and aseismic slip are calculated. They are large enough to be detected by present geodetic techniques.     

Subduction zone seismicity and the thermo-mechanical evolution of downgoing lithosphere

In this paper we discuss characteristic features of subduction zone seismicity at depths between about 100 km and 700 km, with emphasis on the role of temperature and rheology in controlling the deformation of, and the seismic energy release in downgoing lithosphere. This is done in two steps. After a brief review of earlier developments, we first show that the depth distribution of hypocentres at depths between 100 km and 700 km in subducted lithosphere can be explained by a model in which seismic activity is confined to those parts of the slab which have temperatures below a depth-dependent critical valueT _cr.Second, the variation of seismic energy release (frequency of events, magnitude) with depth is addressed by inferring a rheological evolution from the slab's thermal evolution and by combining this with models for the system of forces acting on the subducting lithosphere. It is found that considerable stress concentration occurs in a reheating slab in the depth range of 400 to 650–700 km: the slab weakens, but the stress level strongly increases. On the basis of this stress concentration a model is formulated for earthquake generation within subducting slabs. The model predicts a maximum depth of seismic activity in the depth range of 635 to 760 km and, for deep earthquake zones, a relative maximum in seismic energy release near the maximum depth of earthquakes. From our modelling it follows that, whereas such a maximum is indeed likely to develop in deep earthquake zones, zones with a maximum depth around 300 km (such as the Aleutians) are expected to exhibit a smooth decay in seismic energy release with depth. This is in excellent agreement with observational data. In conclusion, the incoroporation of both depth-dependent forces and depth-dependent rheology provides new insight into the generation of intermediate and deep earthquakes and into the variation of seismic activity with depth.Our results imply that no barrier to slab penetration at a depth of 650–700 km is required to explain the maximum depth of seismic activity and the pattern of seismic energy release in deep earthquake zones.     

Depth of the brittle-ductile transition in a transcurrent boundary zone

A model is proposed which describes the boundary zone between two transcurrent plates as a viscoelastic body, with rheological properties changing with depth. In this model, the brittle-ductile transition is defined as the depth at which the time derivative of shear stress changes from positive to negative values. Variations of this depth are studied as functions of geothermal gradient, rheological parameters and strain rate, using a power law rheology with exponent ranging from 1 to 4. Stress relaxation in the ductile zone is controlled by a local characteristic time, which depends on petrology, temperature and, in the case of non-Newtonian rheology, on strain rate. The composition and the hydration degree of crustal rocks may also sensibly influence the depth of the brittle-ductile transition. The model predictions are compared with observations regarding the San Andreas, Imperial Valley and North Anatolian Faults: it is found that values ofn from 1 to 3 are more appropriate to reproduce the transition depth inferred by the seismicity distribution.     

Application of the Lorenz equations for studying thermal convection in the lithosphere

Stationary solutions including wave solutions with constant amplitudes are found for nonlinear equations of thermal convection in a layer with nonlinear rheology. The solution is based on the Fourier expansion of unknown velocities and temperatures with only the first and first two terms retained in the velocity and temperature series, respectively. This method, which can be regarded as the Lorenz method, yields the Lorenz equations that fairly well describe the thermal convection in a layer with Newtonian rheology if the Rayleigh number is not very large. The obtained generalization of the Lorenz equations to the case of an integral (having a memory) nonlinear rheology implies that only the first term is retained in the Fourier series for the stress components, i.e., the nonlinear rheological equation is harmonically linearized. However, in the Fourier series of temperature, it is essential to keep the second term: this term, which is independent of the horizontal coordinate, models the thermal boundary layer that characterizes the developed convection. We constructed the bifurcation curves that describe the stationary convection in the nonlinear integral medium simulating the rheology of the mantle, and analyzed the stability of stationary convective flows. The Lorenz method is applied to study small-scale thermal convection in the lithosphere of the Earth.     

Regional Stress Field and Seismic Dynamics Along the Border Zone Between Fujian, Guangdong and Jiangxi Provinces

The regional stress field and seismic dynamics along the border zone between Fujian, Guangdong and Jiangxi Provinces are studied based on the seismo-geological data, GPS measurement, and seismicity. The results show that: (1) the principal compressional stress of the stress field is oriented in NW-SE direction and the principal extensional stress is in NE-SW direction; (2) the WNW-ward compression and collision of the Philippine Sea Plate to the eastern coast of Taiwan Island are the most direct and most important dynamic source for preparation and occurrence of strong earthquakes in the Taiwan area and along the border zone between Fujian, Guangdong and Jiangxi Provinces.     

Attenuation of seismic waves and the universal rheological model of the Earth’s mantle

Analysis of results of laboratory studies on creep of mantle rocks, data on seismic wave attenuation in the mantle, and rheological micromechanisms shows that the universal, i.e., relevant to all time scales, rheological model of the mantle can be represented as four rheological elements connected in series. These elements account for elasticity, diffusion rheology, high temperature dislocation rheology, and low temperature dislocation rheology. The diffusion rheology element is described in terms of a Newtonian viscous fluid. The high temperature dislocation rheology element is described by the rheological model previously proposed by the author. This model is a combination of a power-law non-Newtonian fluid model for stationary flows and the linear hereditary Andrade model for flows associated with small strains. The low temperature dislocation rheology element is described by the linear hereditary Lomnitz model.     

Seismic expression of active extensional faults in northern Umbria (Central Italy)

This paper deals with the geometry and kinematics of the active normal faults in northern Umbria, and their relationship with the seismicity observed in the area. In particular, we illustrate the contribution of seismic reflection data (a network of seismic profiles, NNW–SSE and WSW–ENE trending) in constraining at depth the geometry of the different active fault systems and their reciprocal spatial relationships. The main normal fault in the area is the Alto Tiberina fault, NNW trending and ENE dipping, producing a displacement of about 5 km, and generating a continental basin (Val Tiberina basin), infilled by up to 1500 m with Upper Pliocene–Quaternary deposits. The fault has a staircase trajectory, and can be traced on the seismic profiles to a depth of about 13 km. A set of WSW-dipping, antithetic faults can be recognised on the profiles, the most important of which is the Gubbio fault, bordering an extensional Quaternary basin and interpreted as an active fault based on geological, geomorphologic and seismological evidence. The epicentral distribution of the main historical earthquakes is strictly parallel to the general trend of the normal faults. The focal mechanisms of the major earthquakes show a strong similarity with the attitude of the extensional faults, mapped at the surface and recognised on the seismic profiles. These observations demonstrate the connection between seismicity in the area and the activity of the normal faults. Moreover, the distribution of the instrumental seismicity suggests the activity of the Alto Tiberina fault as the basal detachment for the extensional tectonics of the area. Finally, the action of the Alto Tiberina fault was simulated using two dimensional finite element modelling: a close correspondence between the concentration of shear stresses in the model and the distribution of the present earthquakes was obtained.     

长英质岩石的流变学特征及其影响因素

在总结岩石变形机制与岩石流变学实验进展的基础上,讨论了岩石流变学数据的重复性。虽然高温高压流变学实验积累了大量的数据,但中、上地壳长英质岩石和早期获得的石英集合体的流变实验数据重复性比较差,而近年来发表的石英、长石的流变学实验数据重复性相对较好。虽然利用经验理论模型,根据端元组分可以拟合两相矿物集合体的流变律,但并不能满足定量确定复杂组分和特殊流变性的长英质岩石流变参数的需要。因此,利用长英质岩石流变参数估计大陆地壳流变强度剖面时,即使在相同地温和应变速率条件下,给出的流变曲线、脆-塑性转化带深度也有一定差别,还需要通过大量实验给出更精细的长英质岩石流变学实验数据。根据近年来流变学实验研究的新进展,讨论了在实验室条件下影响长英质岩石流变的各种因素,重点分析了流体、岩石成分、样品粒度和组构对流变的影响。微量结构水对岩石流变有显著的弱化作用,而熔体对流变的影响与熔体含量和分布相关,只有熔体呈薄膜状湿润颗粒边界时,熔体的弱化作用才显著。成分对岩石流变的影响不仅体现在样品的应力指数等流变参数的变化方面,还体现在样品从半脆性变形向塑性变形的转化温度方面。粒度主要影响岩石的变形机制,其中,细粒样品在扩散蠕变域具有应力与粒度线性负相关特性,是理想的应力计,可以用来定量确定韧性剪切带的流变强度;而在位错蠕变域,应力与粒度没有依存关系,这为将实验室条件得出的流变数据外推估计地壳流变提供了重要依据。组构和各向异性是地壳中岩石存在的普遍现象,但关于层状组构对多相矿物组成的岩石流变影响的研究非常少,需要通过新的实验来深入研究。     

Evaluation of the seismic hazard for 20 cities in Romania using Monte Carlo based simulations

This work focuses on the evaluation of the seismic hazard for Romania using earthquake catalogues generated by a Monte Carlo approach. The seismicity of Romania can be attributed to the Vrancea intermediate-depth seismic source and to 13 other crustal seismic sources. The recurrence times of large magnitude seismic events (both crustal and subcrustal), as well as the moment release rates are computed using simulated earthquake catalogues. The results show that the largest contribution to the overall moment release for the crustal seismic sources is from the seismic regions in Bulgaria, while the seismic regions in Romania contribute less than 5% of the overall moment release. In addition, the computations show that the moment release rate for the Vrancea subcrustal seismic source is about ten times larger than that of all the crustal seismic sources. Finally, the Monte Carlo approach is used to evaluate the seismic hazard for 20 cities in Romania with populations larger than 100,000 inhabitants. The results show some differences between the seismic hazard values obtained through Monte-Carlo simulation and those in the Romanian seismic design code P100-1/2013, notably for cities situated in the western part of Romania that are influenced by local crustal seismic sources.     

帕米尔-兴都库什地区构造应力场反演及拆离板片应力形因子特征研究

从Global CMT目录搜集了1976年1月至2016年6月之间的震源深度大于70 km的255个震源机制解,用阻尼应力反演方法,分70~160 km和170~310 km两个深度,计算了帕米尔-兴都库什地区的构造应力场;同时以10 km为间隔计算了兴都库什地区深度介于70~310 km之间的应力形因子.得到以下初步结论：兴都库什板片向下俯冲和帕米尔地区断裂带的横向拉张,可能是导致应力场不同的原因.兴都库什俯冲带与帕米尔俯冲带碰撞,导致交汇地区（37°N-37.5°N）的应力场参数突变.兴都库什俯冲板片受到深部温度、压力等因素,出现薄弱面进而形成拆离板片.其脱离了主俯冲板片的束缚后,重力的上下拉张作用导致空区附近张轴倾伏角接近90°,拆离板片俯冲至上地幔不连续面,导致板片部分熔融进而应力形因子随着深度变小.而拆离板片受到地幔挤压其内部发生破碎,其压应力轴由西部的NS到东部NW-SE方向偏转及纵向张应力轴倾伏角变小.

     

辽东半岛及两侧海域深部构造,活动构造与地震关系研究

辽宁半岛及两侧海域地震活动频繁,地震活动在空间上显示有条带状,网络状和团块状等分布特征,本文通过地震活动与深部构造、活动构造关系的分析认为,莫氏面的形态、深断裂的发育特征和活动断裂的特殊部位等对地震分布起了控制作用,从而构成了多种空间分布图象。     

Spatial sensitivity of seismic hazard results to different background seismic activity and temporal earthquake occurrence models

Spatial sensitivity of seismic hazard results to different models with respect to background seismic activity and earthquake occurrence in time is investigated. For the contribution of background seismic activity to seismic hazard, background area source with uniform seismicity and spatially smoothed seismicity models are taken into consideration. For the contribution of faults, through characteristic earthquakes, both the memoryless Poisson and the time dependent renewal models are utilized. A case study, involving the assessment of seismic hazard for the Bursa province in Turkey, is conducted in order to examine quantitatively the influence of these models on seismic hazard results. The spatial variation of the difference in Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA) values obtained from these different models is presented in the form of difference maps for return periods of 475 and 2475 years. Best estimate seismic hazard maps for PGA and Spectral Accelerations (SA) at 0.2 and 1.0 s are obtained by using the logic tree method.     

Mantle convection pattern and subcrustal stress field under Asia

Gravitational field models derived from satellite tracking and surface gravity data have been used to derive the forces in the earth's mantle under Asia. Based on studies of tectonic forces from these models, a subcrustal stress field under China has been obtained. The stresses are due to mantle convection. According to the stress patterns, the east and west China blocks and five seismic zones are identified. The tensional stresses exerted by the upwelling mantle convection flows under the crust of Tibet seem to be related to the Tibetan uplift. The compressional orogenic region from the southern tip of Lake Baikal, through Tien Shan, Hindu Kush and the Himalayas to northern Burma appears to be connected with the downwelling mantle convection flows. It is found that the directions of the subcrustal stresses under China are disposed perpendicularly to the major fault systems and seismic belts. The results of stress calculations show that the crust of north China should be in compression and that stresses within it should be sufficient to form the Shansi Graben and Linfen Basin Systems and fracture the lithosphere. This gives a possible explanation of why strong earthquakes occurred in north China which is an isolated narrow region of highest seismicity far from plate boundaries. The tensional stress fields, caused by the upwelling mantle convection flows, are found to be regions of structural kinship characterized by major concentrations of mineral and metal deposits in China.     

High-frequency earthquakes at White Island volcano, New Zealand: insights into the shallow structure of a volcano-hydrothermal system

Volcano-tectonic earthquakes at White Island are concentrated in a single seismically active zone, southeast of the active vents and at depths of less than 1 km. A few deeper earthquakes also occur beneath the active vents. A composite focal mechanism indicates that the stress regime in the shallow seismic zone is N-S extensional. Shallow seismicity occurs within the main volume of the volcano-hydrothermal system that underlies the Main Crater floor, and we interpret this as a region where the rocks have been weakened by past magmatic intrusions, elevated pore fluid pressure and physico-chemical effects of acid volcanic fluids, thereby allowing preferential seismic failure. Brittle seismic failure within this region requires a temperature less than about 400 °C, and implies high horizontal temperature gradients close to the active craters and fumaroles. Spasmodic bursts events are also a result of brittle failure, but occur close to zones of significant permeability in response to changes in local fluid pressure.     

地震孕育发生的场源关系初步研究

场和源在地震学和地震预报研究中已成为两个最重要分友。本文应用计算机模型研究地震活动中的场源关系。模型以非线性元件构成的网络系统来模拟含有多个地震活动带的地震构造块体的地震活动。在模型边界上加以定常应变速率，则在模型中可产生高低起伏的轮回式地震活动，并形成应力场强度和应变能高低起伏的准周期变化，各地地震活动轮回有其主体活动地区，不同的轮回之间常显示出地震主体活动区的空间转移。同时，若将模型中达到一定     

The aegean region — Seismogenic properties of deep seismically active structures

Summary The seismicity depth pattern, seismic energy and b-value depth variation in the Hellenic Wadati-Benioff zone and the overlying continental plate in the Aegean region for the period 1901–1982 are studied separately on the basis of a recent seismotectonic model [1]. The results obtained show that the W and E flanks of the Hellenic Wadati-Benioff zone, as well as the E and W parts of the overlying continental plate, have similar tendencies in the depth distributions of seismic activity and different tendencies in the depth distributions of seismic energy and b-value. The different depth distributions of the considered seismogenic characteristics are supposed to be due to different depth distributions of heterogeneity of material, stress and rheology of material of the western and eastern parts of the sinking and overlying lithospheric plates.     

断层几何障碍与地震的发生和发展——以剑川-洱源伸展带为例

本文应用几何障碍的概念,对剑川-洱源伸展构造带的几何结构、1982年至1986年沿构造带的地震活动及其相互之间的关系进行了分析研究和数值模拟,结果表明:现代构造带的几何障碍是可能的潜在震源区;构造几何结构、障碍的规模、应变能积累三者之间有着一一对应的关系;障碍点之间存在相互作用,它们具有导致地震破裂发生和阻碍破裂发展的双重属性,从而控制着地震的孕育和迁移     

Preliminary Research on Relation Between Field and Source in Earthquake Preparation

The "field" and "source" are two important branches in seismology and earthquake research.In this paper,we use a computer model to study the relation between the field and the source in earthquake activity.In our modeling,a network of nonlinear elements is used to simulate seismic activity of seismic zones in a seismotectonic block.Constant strain rate is enforced on the boundary of the model,cyclic seismic activity,quasi-periodic variation of stress field intensity,and strain energy are observed with high and low fluctuations.There is a main seismicity area in seismic cycles,and the main seismicity area shows the spatial migration during different seismic cycles.If the precursory area is related to high element stress,it is found that the development of precursors in our model is quite complicated.No certain relation between the precursors and earthquakes has been discovered.Anomalies show different characteristics in the seismic quiet period and active period.All of the seismic zones in the system hav