Influence of atmospheric parameters on downward longwave radiation and features of its regime in Moscow

Measurement results of downward longwave radiation (DLR) in a wavelength range of 3.5?C50 ??m are considered which have been obtained with the use of a precision IR radiometer (Eppley pyrgeometer) of the PIR model at the Meteorological Observatory of Moscow State University in 2008?C2010. The influence of air temperature and atmospheric moisture content on the DLR values has been analyzed; correlations between DLR and the above parameters have been found. The effect of clouds on DLR has been estimated: DLR increases by about 30% in daytime and by 25% in nighttime under overcast low clouds. The annual average DLR in Moscow is 305 W/m², with a minimum in December?CMarch and a maximum in July?CAugust. Variations in DLR throughout a year can exceed 250 W/m². The daily average amplitude is 18?C33 W/m² in summer and 6?C13 W/m² in winter. An increase in DLR by about 40 W/m² is noted under conditions of haze from forest and peat-bog fires and an aerosol optical depth of about 4 at a wavelength of 500 nm.     

Heat budget in the Japan Sea

The long-term mean (31-year mean) surface heat fluxes over the Japan Sea are estimated by the bulk method using the most of the available vessel data with the resolution of 1^o×1^o. The long-term annual mean net heat flux is about –53 W m^–2 (negative sign means upward heat flux) with the annual range from 133 W m^–2 in May to –296 W m^–2 in December. The small gain of heat in the area near Vladivostok seems to indicate the existence of cold water flowing from the north. In that area in winter, the mean loss of heat attains about 200 W m^–2, and the Bowen's ratio is over the unity. The largest insolation occurs in May in the Japan Sea, and the upward latent heat flux becomes the largest in November in this area. The heat flux of Haney type is also calculated, and the result, shows that the constantQ ₁ has the remarkable seasonal and spatial variation, while the coefficientQ ₂ has relatively small variation throughout all seasons. Under the assumption of constant volume transport of 1.35×10⁶ m³s^–1 through the Tsugaru Strait, the long-term averages of the volume transport through the Tsushima and Soya Straits are estimated to be about 2.20 and 0.85×10⁶ m³s^–1 from the result of the mean surface heat flux, respectively.     

Validation and Improvement of Satellite-Derived Surface Solar Radiation over the Northwestern Pacific Ocean

The purpose of this study is to validate and improve satellite-derived downward surface shortwave radiation (DSSR) over the northwestern Pacific Ocean using abundant in situ data. The DSSR derivation model used here assumes that the reduction of solar radiation by clouds is proportional to the product of satellite-measured albedo and a cloud attenuation coefficient. DSSR is calculated from Geostationary Meteorological Satellite-5/Visible Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer data in 0.05° × 0.05° grids. The authors first compare the satellite DSSR derived with a cloud attenuation coefficient table determined in past research with in situ values. Although the hourly satellite DSSR agrees well with land in situ values in Japan, it has a bias of +13∼+34 W/m² over the ocean and the bias is especially large in the low latitudes. The authors then improve the coefficient table using the ocean in situ data. Usage of the new table successfully reduces the bias of the satellite DSSR over the ocean. The cloud attenuation coefficient for low-albedo cases over the ocean needs to be larger in the low latitudes than past research has indicated. Daily and hourly DSSR can be evaluated from the satellite data with RMS errors of 11–14% and 30–33%, respectively, over a wide region of the ocean by this model. It is also shown that the cloud attenuation coefficient over land needs to be smaller than over the ocean because the effect of the radiation reflected by the land surface cannot be ignored.     

Surface heat fluxes during hot events

We selected surface flux datasets to investigate the heat fluxes during “hot events”; (HEs), defined as short-term, large-scale phenomena involving very high sea surface temperature (SST). Validation of the heat fluxes against in-situ ones, which are estimated from in-situ observation in HE sampling conditions, shows the accuracies (bias ± RMS error) of net shortwave radiation, net long wave radiation, latent heat and sensible heat fluxes are 20 ± 45.0 W m⁻², −9 ± 12.3 W m⁻², −2.3 ± 31.5 W m⁻² and 1.5 ± 5.0 W m⁻², respectively. Statistical analyses of HEs show that, during these events, net solar radiation remains high and then decreases from 246 to 220 W m⁻², while latent heat is low and then increases from 100 W m⁻² to 124 W m⁻². Histogram peaks indicate net solar radiation of 270 W m⁻² and latent heat flux of 90 W m⁻² during HEs. Further, HEs are shown to evolve in three phases: formation, mature, and ending phases. Mean heat gain (HG) in the HE formation phase of 60 W m⁻² is larger than the reasonably estimated annual mean HG range of 0–25 W m⁻² in the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool. Such large daily HG in the HE formation phase can be expected to increase SSTs and produce large amplitudes of diurnal SST variations during HEs, which have been observed by both satellite and in-situ measurements in our previous studies.     

Impacts of solar UV radiation on grazing, lipids oxidation and survival of Acartia pacifica Steuer (Copepod)

UV radiation is known to affect aquatic primary producers and their grazers. However, little has been documented on its effects on zooplankton grazing. In this study, the authors investigated the effects of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm), ultraviolet-A (UV-A, 320-400 nm) and ultraviolet-B (UV-B, 280-320 nm) radiation on grazing, mortality and lipids oxidation of the copepod Acartia pacifica collected from the Xiamen Bay. After 30 min of the exposures, the copepod was fed in darkness with the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum at two cell concentrations (2.5 × 10 4 and 2.5 × 10 5 cells/ml). At the low cell concentration, the individuals pre-exposed to PAR (218.0 W/m 2 )+UV-A (48.2 W/m 2 ) or PAR+UV-A+UV-B (2.1 W/m 2 ) showed suppressed clearance and grazing activities compared with those receiving PAR alone, by 22.7% and 17.1% for clearance and by 22.6% and 5.5% for grazing rates, respectively. However, the suppression on clearance and grazing became indistinctive at the high food concentration. Exposures to UV-A and UV-B led to increased lipid oxidation and higher mortality, furthermore, the mortality linearly increased with enhanced oxidation of lipid.     

Air temperature at ocean surface derived from surface-level humidity

A new method deriving surface air temperature from specific humidity is proposed. Surface atmospheric pressure and relative humidity in addition to specific humidity are necessary in order to derive surface air temperature. Assuming effects of variation of atmospheric pressure and relative humidity are small, climatological values are used for those values. Derived surface air temperature is compared with in situ surface air temperature. A cross-correlation coefficient is high and the rms error is small. However, the agreement between them varies spatially. The errors are largest in the eastern equatorial region and high-latitudes. The former may be caused by a large sampling error and remarkable internannual variation related to ENSO phenomena. On the other hand, the latter may be related to sensitivity of saturated vapor curve to air temperature. Sensible heat fluxes are estimated by using derived surface air temperature and compared with that by in situ data. For the whole North Pacific, a cross-correlation coefficient, a mean error and an rms difference are 0.89 W m^–2, 0.58 W m^–2 and 8.03 W m^–2, respectively.     

Comparison of marine insolation estimating methods in the adriatic sea

We compare insolation results calculated from two well-known empirical formulas (Seckel and Beaudry’s SB73 formula and the original Smithsonian (SMS) formula) and a radiative transfer model using input data predicted from meteorological weather-forecast models, and review the accuracy of each method. Comparison of annual mean daily irradiance values for clear-sky conditions between the two formulas shows that, relative to the SMS, the SB73 underestimates spring values by 9 W m^-2 in the northern Adriatic Sea, although overall there is a good agreement between the annual results calculated with the two formulas. We also elucidate the effect on SMS of changing the ‘Sun-Earth distance factor (f)’, a parameter which is commonly assumed to be constant in the oceanographic context. Results show that the mean daily solar radiation for clear-sky conditions in the northern Adriatic Sea can be reduced as much as 12 W m^-2 during summer due to a decrease in thef value. Lastly, surface irradiance values calculated from a simple radiative transfer model (GM02) for clear-sky conditions are compared to those from SB73 and SMS. Comparison within situ data in the northern Adriatic Sea shows that the GM02 estimate gives more realistic surface irradiance values than SMS, particularly during summer. Additionally, irradiance values calculated by GM02 using the buoy meteorological fields and ECMWF (The European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts) meteorological data show the suitability of the ECMWF data usage. Through tests of GM02 sensitivity to key regional meteorological factors, we explore the main factors contributing significantly to a reduction in summertime solar irradiance in the Adriatic Sea.     

Comparative Analysis of Satellite Databases of Incoming Short-Wavelength Fluxes to the World Ocean Surface

This work involves satellite data provided by EUMETSAT’s Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring (CM SAF). The data cover the period from 1982 to 2015 depending on the type of satellite and coverage region. It has been found that monthly and daily average values for regional databases in the area of their overlap are overestimated for the western part and underestimated in the eastern part by approximately 25 W/m². The largest values for the mismatch of fluxes are observed at points close to the centers of database areas where the root-mean-square deviation reaches approximately 25 W/m². Comparative analysis of global and regional data reveals an area corresponding to the center of visibility for geostationary satellites. In this area, data from the satellites are comparable with global data; the difference between fluxes is less than 10 W/m². At the periphery of the satellite visibility area, the situation is the reverse: the global coverage data are more overstated than the regional data of geostationary satellites by more than 10 W/m²; the root-meansquare deviation is about 30 W/m² for daily average values and about 45 W/m² for hourly average values.     

2016年夏季北冰洋浮冰站近地层辐射和湍流通量观测

2016年8月7－14日中国第七次北极科学考察期间,在83°N附近设立的长期浮冰站开展了辐射和湍流通量观测研究。结果表明,观测期间反照率变化范围为0.64~0.92,平均反照率为0.78;基于现场观测数据评估了PW79、HIRHAM、ARCSYM和CCSM3 4种不同复杂度的反照率参数化方案在天气尺度的表现,最为复杂的CCSM3结果优于其他参数化方案,但不能体现降雪条件下的反照率快速增长。浮冰区冰雪面平均净辐射为18.10 W/m2,平均感热通量为1.73 W/m2,平均潜热通量为5.55 W/m2,海冰表面消融率为（0.30±0.22） cm/d,表明此时北冰洋浮冰正处于快速消融期。冰面的平均动量通量为0.098（kg·m/s）/（m2·s）,动量通量与风速有很好的对应关系,相关系数达0.80。     

Hourly sea surface temperature retrieval using the Japanese Geostationary Satellite,Multi-Functional Transport Satellite (MTSAT)

An algorithm has been developed for retrieving sea surface temperature (SST) from hourly data transmitted from the Japanese Advanced Meteorological Imager (JAMI) aboard a Japanese geostationary satellite, Multi-functional Transport Satellite (MTSAT)-1R. Threshold tests screening cloudy pixels are empirically adjusted to cases of daytime with/without sun glitter, and nighttime. The Non-Linear SST (NLSST) equation, including several new additional terms, is used to calculate MTSAT SST. The estimated SST is compared with drifting and moored buoy measurements, with the result that the bias of the MTSAT SST is nearly 0.0°K. The root mean square (rms) error is about 0.8°K, and it is 0.7°K under the condition that the satellite zenith angle is less than 50°. It is demonstrated that the hourly MTSAT SST produced by the algorithm developed here captures diurnal SST variations in the equatorial sea in mid-November 2006.     

Improved Estimates of Wide-Ranging Sea Surface Temperature from GMS S-VISSR Data

We have developed an algorithm to estimate the wide-ranging Sea Surface Temperature (SST) data from the GMS-5 (Geostationary Meteorological Satellite) S-VISSR (Stretched-Visible Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer). Better SST estimates are realized by averaging the temporal variation of the VISSR calibration table and decreasing noise of the split-window terms using a spatial filter. The effects of the satellite zenith angle were examined in detail for better estimates, and VISSR-derived SSTs with root-mean-square (rms) error of 0.8 K were achieved using a new algorithm. The accuracy of SST estimates has been improved by using the temporal-spatial average of the split-window terms. Using the new techniques, we demonstrate that the hourly wide-ranging SST image data can be used to study the daily variations of SSTs in the Northern and Southern Pacific Oceans.     

Estimating photosynthetically available radiation at the ocean surface from ADEOS-II global imager data

A simple, yet efficient and fairly accurate algorithm is presented to estimate photosynthetically available radiation (PAR) at the ocean surface from Global Imager (GLI) data. The algorithm utilizes plane-parallel radiation-transfer theory and separates the effects of the clear atmosphere and clouds, i.e., the planetary atmosphere is modeled as a clear atmosphere positioned above a cloud layer. PAR is computed as the difference between the incident 400–700 nm solar flux at the top of the atmosphere (known) and the solar flux reflected back to space by the atmosphere and surface (derived from GLI radiance), taking atmospheric absorption into account. Knowledge of pixel composition is not required, eliminating the need for cloud screening and arbitrary assumptions about sub-pixel cloudiness. For each GLI pixel, clear or cloudy, a daily PAR estimate is obtained. Diurnal changes in cloudiness are taken into account statistically, using a regional diurnal albedo climatology based on 5 years of Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS) data. The algorithm results are verified against other satellite estimates of PAR, the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) reanalysis product, and in-situ measurements from fixed buoys. Agreement is generally good between GLI and Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) estimates, with root-mean-squared (rms) differences of 7.9 (22%), 4.6 (13%), and 2.7 (8%) Einstein/m²/day on daily, weekly, and monthly time scales, and a bias of only 0.8–0.9 (about 2%) Einstein/m²/day. The rms differences between GLI and Visible and Infrared Spin Scan Radiometer (VISSR) estimates and between GLI and NCEP estimates are smaller and larger, respectively, on monthly time scales, i.e., 3.0 (7%) and 5.0 (14%) Einstein/m²/day, and biases are 1.1 (2%) and −0.2 (−1%) Einstein/m²/day. The comparison with buoy data also shows good agreement, with rms inaccuracies of 10.2 (23%), 6.3 (14%), and 4.5 (10%) Einstein/m²/day on daily, weekly, and monthly time scales, and slightly higher GLI values by about 1.0 (2%) Einstein/m²/day. The good statistical performance makes the algorithm suitable for large-scale studies of aquatic photosynthesis.     

西太平洋秋季130°E断面有色溶解有机物的分布特征及光降解行为研究

对2018年秋季西太平洋130°E断面上层水体有色溶解有机物(CDOM)的光学特性及光降解行为进行了研究。结果表明,西太平洋上层水体CDOM的吸收系数a(320)变化范围为0.025～0.64 m?1,平均值为(0.20±0.08) m?1;a(320)在表层相对较低,主要与表层CDOM的光漂白去除有关;在100～200 m水层较高,主要与次表层的生物活动有关。利用三维荧光光谱?平行因子分析技术,识别出两种荧光组分:类酪氨酸组分C1和海洋类腐殖质组分C2。C1主要源于棉兰老冷涡?上升流所带来的营养物质对浮游植物生产活动和微生物活动的促进作用;C2主要源于黑潮所带来的海洋类腐殖的输入。光化学降解实验发现,CDOM吸收值的损失主要发生在紫外波段;光照60 h后,类酪氨酸组分相较于海洋类腐殖质组分更易发生光降解;且光降解是西太平洋海域CDOM的重要去除途径。     

急性UVB辐射对粉叶马尾藻过氧化损伤和主要抗氧化酶的影响

粉叶马尾藻(Sargassum glaucescens)是台湾地区潮间带的重要大型藻类,其对紫外线增强的生理响应特征尚不清楚。本研究关注粉叶马尾藻在急性紫外线辐射(Ultraviolet radiation B,UVB)下的生理指标变化,探索了粉叶马尾藻在急性UVB辐照下抗氧化系统的瞬时反应过程。结果表明:低强度组[0.5W/(m2·s)]藻体在24h内未出现显著氧化损伤和蛋白质含量变化,但是细胞活力在辐照12h后显著降低,藻体超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)酶活性随辐照时间延长而降低,过氧化氢酶(CAT)酶活性呈现升高后下降的趋势,抗坏血酸过氧化物酶(APX)酶活性没有出现显著降低;高强度组[2W/(m2·s)]藻体在辐照3h后藻体出现明显氧化损伤,6h后细胞活力和蛋白质含量显著降低,藻体SOD酶活性随辐照时间延长而降低,CAT和APX酶活性呈现升高后降低的趋势,辐射12h后即显著降低。低强度UVB辐射对粉叶马尾藻的影响相对较小,表明粉叶马尾藻对UVB辐射具有一定耐受性;而高强度UVB辐射的影响较为显著,意味着UVB辐射的持续增强将超出粉叶马尾藻的耐受限度,进而造成不利影响。本研究结果初步揭示了粉叶马尾藻对于急性UVB辐射的增强的生理响应特征,为进一步研究UVB辐射增强的生态学效应提供参考依据。     

One-dimensional modelling of convective CO2 exchange in the Tropical Atlantic

Diurnal changes in seawater temperature affect the amount of air–sea gas exchange taking place through changes in solubility and buoyancy-driven nocturnal convection, which enhances the gas transfer velocity. We use a combination of in situ and satellite derived radiometric measurements and a modified version of the General Ocean Turbulence Model (GOTM), which includes the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Coupled-Ocean Atmospheric Response Experiment (NOAA-COARE) air–sea gas transfer parameterization, to investigate heat and carbon dioxide exchange over the diurnal cycle in the Tropical Atlantic. A new term based on a water-side convective velocity scale (w_*w) is included, to improve parameterization of convectively driven gas transfer. Meteorological data from the PIRATA mooring located at 10°S10°W in the Tropical Atlantic are used, in conjunction with cloud cover estimates from Meteosat-7, to calculate fluxes of longwave, latent and sensible heat along with a heat budget and temperature profiles during February 2002. Twin model experiments, representing idealistic and realistic conditions, reveal that over daily time scales the additional contribution to gas exchange from convective overturning is important. Increases in transfer velocity of up to 20% are observed during times of strong insolation and low wind speeds (<6 m s⁻¹); the greatest enhancement from w_*w to the CO₂ flux occurs when diurnal warming is large. Hence, air–sea fluxes of CO₂ calculated using simple parameterizations underestimate the contribution from convective processes. The results support the need for parameterizations of gas transfer that are based on more than wind speed alone and include information about the heat budget.     

Concentration of surface ozone, Obninsk, 2004–2010

The results of measurements of surface ozone in central European Russia in 2004–2010 are presented. The variation coefficient for hourly, monthly, and annual mean ozone concentrations is 78, 26, and 12%, respectively. The measurements established a link between increased (>60 μg/m³) and minimum (<12 μg/m³) hourly mean ozone concentrations with the existence of a temperature inversion in the lower 300-m atmospheric layer. Sixty-seven percent of the total number of increased hourly mean ozone concentrations over the 2004–2010 period took place in 2010. A maximum hourly mean ozone concentration of 218.5 μg/m³ was recorded at 17:00 on August 1, 2010. The annual mean ozone concentration in a climatically significant range of hourly mean concentrations from 12 to 60 μg/m³ increased by 45% in a linear approximation over the period of record. The spectral analysis of monthly mean concentrations of surface ozone identified composite oscillations with periods from 3 to 60 months. To approximate the temporal dynamics of ozone, a statistical model was used. This model satisfactorily describes the experimental monthly and annual mean concentrations.     

Increase of anthropogenic CO2 in the Pacific Ocean over the last two decades

The multiple-parameter linear regression method (Monitoring global ocean carbon inventories. Ocean Observing System Development Panel, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 1995, 54pp; Global Biogeochem. Cycles 13 (1999) 179) is used to compare inorganic carbon data from the GEOSECS CO₂ survey in the Pacific Ocean in 1973 to the WOCE/JGOFS global CO₂ survey in the 1990s. A model of total dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) as a function of five variables (AOU, θ, S, Si, and PO₄) has been developed from the recent CO₂ survey data (namely CGC91 and CGC96) in the Pacific Ocean. After correcting for a systematic DIC offset of −30.3±7 μmol kg⁻¹ from the GEOSECS data, the residual DIC based on this model as computed from GEOSECS data has been used to estimate the anthropogenic CO₂ penetration in the Pacific Ocean. In the Northeast Pacific, we obtained an increase of CO₂ of 21.3±7.9 mol m⁻² over the period from GEOSECS in 1973 to CGC91 in 1991. This gives a mean anthropogenic CO₂ uptake rate of 1.3±0.5 mol m⁻² yr⁻¹ over this 17 year time period. In the South Pacific, north of 50°S between 180° and 120°W region, the integrated anthropogenic CO₂ inventory is estimated to be 19.7±5.7 mol m⁻² over the period from GEOSECS in 1974 to CGC96 in 1996. The equivalent mean CO₂ uptake rate is estimated to be 0.9±0.3 mol m⁻² yr⁻¹ over the 22 years. These results are compared with the isopycnal method (Nature 396 (1998) 560) to estimate the anthropogenic CO₂ signal in the Northeast Pacific (30°N, 152°W) at the crossover region between CGC91 and GEOSECS. The results of the isopycnal method are consistent with those derived from the MLR method. Both methods show an increase in anthropogenic CO₂ inventory in the ocean over two decades that is consistent with the increase expected if the ocean uptake has kept pace with the atmospheric CO₂ increase.     

Estimate for radiative forcing of smoke aerosol from 2010 summer fires based on measurements in the Moscow region

Temperature and radiation effects of the 2010 summer fires are estimated on the basis of measurements at the Zvenigorod Scientific Station (ZSS) of the Obukhov Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), in the Moscow region. The surface air temperature during the 2010 summer smoke varied in antiphase with the aerosol mass concentration, and the thermal radiation balance in the surface layer of the atmosphere varied in phase. Under extreme smoke of the surface layer in August 2010, the reduction in surface air temperature at ZSS has been found to reach 4 K with an increase in the downward flux of thermal radiation by an average of 20 W/m² and a decrease in the difference between upward and downward fluxes of thermal radiation by an average of 24 W/m².     

中国近海海气界面热通量的反演

应用卫星SSM/I(Special Sensor Microwave/Imager)和AVHRR(Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer)遥感资料,使用先进的海气通量计算方法(COARE3.0),计算了中国近海海气界面的感热和潜热通量.计算结果与南海西沙(2002年5月)和文昌(2000年10~11月)实测结果进行比较发现,应用遥感资料获得的海气界面热通量与实测结果非常一致.遥感获得的感热通量和潜热通量与西沙实测结果的均方根误差分别为2.9和29.9 W/m2,与文昌实测结果的均方根误差:2000年10月分别为4.42和43.05 W/m2,2000年11月分别为4.19和40.8 W/m2.与GSSTF2的结果相比,其时空分布变化特征基本一致.根据中国近海遥感资料(1988~2000年)的感热通量的分析,其均方根误差在10.1~12.4 W/m2之间,多年平均均方根误差为11.7 W/m2.潜热通量的均方根误差在34.8~49.7 W/m2之间,多年平均均方根误差为43.2 W/m2.由此可以说明,利用遥感获得的热通量可以用来进行中国近海海气相互作用的研究以及作为我国气候预测研究的重要依据.     

A Continuous Mapping of Tidal Current Structures in the Kanmon Strait

Tidal current structures at the Hayatomono-Seto of the Kanmon Strait are mapped continuously during March 17 to 20, 2003, including a spring tide, by the eight coastal acoustic tomography (CAT) systems distributed on both the sides of the strait. Detailed structures of strong tidal currents and their associated vortices are well reconstructed by the inverse analysis of travel-time difference data obtained from the reciprocal sound transmission between the paired CAT systems located at both sides of the strait mainly. The results are well compared to the shipboard acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) data at the correlation rate of 0.84/0.82 and the RMS difference of 0.47/0.48 ms⁻¹ for the east-west/north-south current after the selection of good data. During the observation period, the maximum hourly mean volume transport for the upper 7 m layer across the strait reached 13,314 m³ s⁻¹ for the eastward and 5,547 m³ s⁻¹ for the westward. The daily mean transport is directed to the eastward and estimated 1,470 m³ s⁻¹ and 2,140 m³ s⁻¹ for March 18 and 19, respectively, when a spring tide occurs.