黄土高原沟谷地貌发育演化研究进展与展望

黄土沟谷是黄土地貌中最有活力、最具变化、最富特色的对象单元,黄土高原千沟万壑的地貌形态以及触目惊心的侵蚀状态也让区域内沟谷地貌的形成、发育及演化问题成为研究中焦点及前沿性科学问题。近年来,诸多学者采用地学测年法、特征表达法、监测模拟法力图实现对黄土沟谷发育演化进程中“过去-现代-未来”的科学认知。这些研究在相当程度上丰富了黄土沟谷发育过程的认知。本文梳理了黄土高原沟谷地貌演化相关研究的现状,并从黄土高原地貌演化、黄土沟谷发育、基于DEM的沟谷信息提取与表达等研究进行了系统的回顾、梳理与分析。此外,本文提出“黄土沟道剖面群组”概念与方法,试图从新的视角审视黄土沟谷地貌发育演化过程。沟道剖面在黄土沟谷发育演化进程中传递物质能量和累积地形动力,并通过径流节点的串联实现剖面群的连接与组合,形成独特的剖面“群组”模式;该沟道剖面群组是集黄土沟谷地貌特征与过程于一体的综合信息集成体,其三维空间结构是对黄土沟谷地貌发育演化的高度抽象与映射,并可望进一步丰富黄土高原数字地形分析理论与方法体系,为黄土高原黄土地貌成因机理与空间分异格局带来创新的认识。     

Hierarchy structure characteristics analysis for the China Loess watersheds based on gully node calibration

A land surface region can be decomposed into a series of watershed units with a hierarchical organizational structure. For loess landform, the watershed is a basic spatial–structural unit that can express natural landforms, surface morphology characteristics, spatial organization and developmental evolution. In this research we adopted the concept of node calibration in the watershed structure unit, selected six complete watersheds on China Loess Plateau as the research areas to study the quantitative characteristics of the hierarchical structure in terms of watershed geomorphology based on digital elevation model(DEM) data, and then built a watershed hierarchical structure model that relies on gully structure feature points. We calculated the quantitative indices, such as elevation, flow accumulation and hypsometric integral and found there are remarkably closer linear correlation between flow accumulation and elevation with increasing gully order, and the same variation tendency of hypsometric integral also presented. The results showed that the characteristics of spatial structure become more stable, and the intensity of spatial aggregation gradually enhances with increasing gully order. In summary, from the view of gully node calibration, the China Loess watershed structure shows more significantly complex, and the developmental situation variation of the loess landforms also exhibited a fairly stable status with gully order increasing. So, the loess watershed structure and its changes constructed the complex system of the loess landform, and it has the great significance for studying the spatial pattern and evolution law of the watershed geomorphology.     

Quantifying spatial scale of positive and negative terrains pattern at watershed-scale: Case in soil and water conservation region on Loess Plateau

The positive and negative terrains (P-N terrains) widely distributed across China’s Loess Plateau constitute the dual structure characteristic of loess landforms. Analysis of loess P-N terrains at the watershed scale can serve to elucidate the structural characteristics and spatial patterns of P-N terrains, which benefits a better understanding of watershed evolution and suitable scales for loess landform research. The Two-Term Local Quadrat Variance Analysis (TTLQV) is calculated as the average of the square of the difference between the block totals of all possible adjacent pairs of block size, which can be used to detect both the scale and the intensity of landscape patches (e.g., plant/animal communities and gully networks). In this study, we determined the latitudinal and longitudinal spatial scale of P-N terrain patterns within 104 uniformly distributed watersheds in our target soil and water conservation region. The results showed that TTLQV is very effective for examining the scale of P-N terrain patterns. There were apparently three types of P-N terrain pattern in latitudinal direction (i.e., Loess Tableland type, Loess Hill type, and Transitional Form between Sand and Loess type), whereas there were both lower and higher values for P-N terrain pattern scales in all loess landforms in the longitudinal direction. The P-N terrain pattern also clearly presented anisotropy, suggesting that gully networks in the main direction were well-developed while others were relatively undeveloped. In addition, the relationships between the first scales and controlling factors (i.e., gully density, nibble degree, watershed area, mean watershed slope, NDVI, precipitation, loess thickness, and loess landforms) revealed that the first scales are primarily controlled by watershed area and loess landforms. This may indicate that the current spatial pattern of P-N terrains is characterized by internal force. In selecting suitable study areas in China’ Loess Plateau, it is crucial to understand four control variables: the spatial scale of the P-N terrain pattern, the watershed area, the main direction of the watershed, and the loess landforms.     

黄土构造节理对洛川塬水系沟槽发育的影响

本文通过野外实测节理数据统计及室内地形图量测,分析了洛川塬黄土构造节理走向与塬区水系沟槽发育的关系,阐述了构造节理对洛河二,三级支流沟槽网络的控制作用以及沟脑小冲沟的发育机制。     

基于地形剖面的黄土塬梁峁地形各向异性奇异强度研究

黄土高原不同地貌类型对应的地形起伏变化特征各不相同,地形起伏在不同方向上的变化特征具有很大差异性,即地形各向异性。本文引入多重分形谱参数描述不同地貌类型地形各向异性的变化规律,以反映不同黄土地貌地形各向异性的局部和整体变化格局。本研究以5 m分辨率的DEM数据为基础,选取淳化、甘泉、绥德3个典型黄土塬梁峁地貌类型研究样区,对其地形各向异性的变化特征进行分析。研究表明:①3种黄土地貌类型地形各向异性变化具有显著的多重分形特征,地形各向异性变化的奇异强度由强到弱依次为淳化、绥德、甘泉;②淳化样区地形各向异性奇异强度在1.4的概率最大,在奇异强度为2.2附近又有一个小的峰值,总体以奇异强度1.4为主;③甘泉样区的奇异强度在1.8有一个小的峰值,总体以奇异强度0.7为主;④绥德样区奇异强度为0.8的概率最大,且较为均匀地分布在0.8附近,地形各向异性的概率分布呈现为对称分布。研究结果为黄土塬梁峁地形各向异性变化奇异强度为黄土塬最大,黄土峁次之,黄土梁最小。该研究可为黄土地貌的精确分类提供定量信息支持,为区域水土侵蚀评价提供地形指标。     

复杂网络理论在黄土高原沟谷地貌特征研究中的应用

沟谷侵蚀是塑造黄土地表侵蚀形态的主要动力,沟谷的发育过程深刻地影响着黄土地貌的发育及演化.本文在黄土高原选择6个典型地貌样区,以样区的数字高程模型为基本数据源提取沟谷系统.将沟谷系统中的沟谷节点、沟谷源点和流域出水口点作为网络节点,网络节点之间的空间拓扑关系为边,高程差为权值,构建黄土高原沟谷加权复杂网络模型.对黄土沟...     

基于DEM的黄土高原地形纹理概念模型

黄土高原"千沟万壑"的地貌形态,在多尺度空间下表现出显著自相似性,具有"局部无规则,宏观有规律"的纹理特征.目前,黄土高原地形纹理的提取方法及应用已经得到初步发展,但依然缺乏在理论层面的框架体系.本文在已有学者研究成果的基础上,限定黄土高原为研究范围,明确提出黄土高原地形纹理的概念模型,即内涵、特征、分类及表达.将内涵...     

Clustering gully profiles for investigating the spatial variation in landform formation on the Chinese Loess Plateau

The gully is the most dynamic and changeable landform unit on the Loess Plateau, and the characteristics of gully landforms are key indicators of gully evolution. Different gully profiles are connected and combined through runoff nodes. Thus, it is necessary to cluster gully profiles into a gully profile combination(GPC) to reveal the spatial variation in gully landforms throughout the Loess Plateau. First, the gradient and gully evolution index(GEI) of two sample areas in Changwu and Suide in Shaanxi Province, China are calculated and analysed based on GPC. Then, the gradient and GEI are calculated by using 90-m-resolution digital elevation model(DEM) data for the severe soil erosion area with the basin as the research unit. On this basis, the spatial variation in the development degree is analysed with Getis-Ord Gi*. The results show that the degree of gully undercutting decreases from southeast to northwest under the influence of rainfall. Due to the soil properties, the loess in the northwest is more prone to collapse, resulting in the decrease of GEI from northwest to southeast. The development degree of gullies is closely related to rivers. The strong erosive capacity of rivers leads to greater differences in gullies within the basin. At the same time, the skewness and kurtosis of the gully index in the basin are correlated; when the distribution of the gully index in the basin is less normal, the distribution of the gully index is more concentrated. These results reveal the spatial variation characteristics of the Loess Plateau based on GPC.     

DEM分辨率对黄土侵蚀沟形态特征表达的不确定性分析

黄土侵蚀沟的地形表达是开展黄土沟谷侵蚀研究的基础工作,利用数字高程模型(DEM)定量描述侵蚀沟特征有助于研究侵蚀沟的形态变化和发育过程。基于DEM数据计算多种指标对黄土侵蚀沟特征进行描述是目前侵蚀沟研究中最为常用的方法。但是,受到格网DEM数据结构的限制,其计算结果会存在一定的不确定性。在侵蚀沟地形表达时,对形态特征的表达会受到DEM数据分辨率的影响,进而造成表达结果的不确定性。尤其在黄土高原地区,地形特征更为破碎,地形要素更为复杂,其表达结果受DEM分辨率的影响更为明显。本文以黄土高原典型样区为例,基于点云数据建立不同分辨率的DEM数据集,通过不同地形因子对侵蚀沟特征进行表达,分析DEM分辨率在黄土侵蚀沟形态特征表达时的不确定性。结果显示,分辨率的降低对主沟支沟比和纵比降等侵蚀沟形态特征因子产生了较大影响,且指标与分辨率多呈现线性变化关系。但是,随着侵蚀沟的横向扩张,DEM分辨率对其特征表达的影响逐渐被削弱。此外,在使用固定分析窗口进行侵蚀沟特征计算时,由于分辨率的降低,格网尺寸增大,其实际分析半径随之增大,使得计算范围内地表形态变化增加,导致沟谷切割深度随着分辨率的降低反而增加。同时,侵蚀沟主沟道区域受分辨率影响较小,沟头区域指标与分辨率的关系较弱。     

基于DEM的黄土崾岘提取及其地形特征分析

崾岘是将要被切穿的鞍部,是正负地形矛盾斗争的结果,也是重要的地形控制点。典型的崾岘多位于黄土高原黄土地貌区,又称黄土崾岘,其对识别沟间地与沟谷的斗争程度有一定的指示作用。本文以黄土高原样区为例,基于1:1万DEM（5 m分辨率）和影像分辨率为0.95 m的遥感影像,利用流域边界算法和缓冲区标定,分析窗口选择5×5,实现了崾岘点位的半自动化提取。并对各崾岘点位求取坡度等地形因子,总结崾岘的空间格局和地形特征。结果显示,崾岘多分布在主流域边界和垂直于主沟道的最宽部分,地形控制作用明显。崾岘的坡度、起伏度、切割深度等值均大于鞍部值,同时,高级流域区的崾岘值大于低级流域区的崾岘值,反映出崾岘具有侵蚀程度强、表层完整性低、地表破碎度高的特点。总体而言,崾岘受沟道蚕食度高,从侧面反映了黄土地貌的发育阶段,是黄土地貌发育到中期的标志性产物。     

Automatic recognition of loess landforms using Random Forest method

The automatic recognition of landforms is regarded as one of the most important procedures to classify landforms and deepen the understanding on the morphology of the earth. However, landform types are rather complex and gradual changes often occur in these landforms, thus increasing the difficulty in automatically recognizing and classifying landforms. In this study, small-scale watersheds, which are regarded as natural geomorphological elements, were extracted and selected as basic analysis and recognition units based on the data of SRTM DEM. In addition, datasets integrated with terrain derivatives(e.g., average slope gradient, and elevation range) and texture derivatives(e.g., slope gradient contrast and elevation variance) were constructed to quantify the topographical characteristics of watersheds. Finally, Random Forest(RF) method was employed to automatically select features and classify landforms based on their topographical characteristics. The proposed method was applied and validated in seven case areas in the Northern Shaanxi Loess Plateau for its complex andgradual changed landforms. Experimental results show that the highest recognition accuracy based on the selected derivations is 92.06%. During the recognition procedure, the contributions of terrain derivations were higher than that of texture derivations within selected derivative datasets. Loess terrace and loess mid-mountain obtained the highest accuracy among the seven typical loess landforms. However, the recognition precision of loess hill, loess hill–ridge, and loess sloping ridge is relatively low. The experiment also shows that watershed-based strategy could achieve better results than object-based strategy, and the method of RF could effectively extract and recognize the feature of landforms.     

基于DEM的沟谷特征点提取与分析

沟谷特征点是反映沟谷地貌空间形态分布的重要点位,也是研究沟谷地貌演化过程与机理的关键要素。因此,对不同沟谷特征点的有效提取,是沟谷形态研究的重要基础。本文采用DEM及其在水文分析中的多种衍生数据,通过流向追踪、邻域特征判断等一系列方法,实现对径流节点、径流源点、汇流源点、潜在裂点与流域出口点的快速、准确提取。同时,对沟谷特征点进行有效分级,本文基于Strahler河流分级法建立了相应的分类标准,对沟谷特征点进行了自动分类。通过使用陕西省宜君典型样区5m分辨率的DEM数据进行实验,发现新算法计算效率高,结果准确,对潜在裂点也进行了有效探测,验证了算法的有效性。最后,对特征点提取的数据影响进行了详细分析。     

Landform planation index extracted from DEMs: A case study in ordos platform of China

Planation surface, a surface that is almost flat, is a kind of low-relief landforms. Planation surface is the consequence of the denudation and planation processes under a tectonic stable condition. The quantitative expression of the characteristics of planation surface plays a key role in reconstructing and describing the evolutionary process of landforms. In this study, Landform Planation Index (LPI), a new terrain derivative, was proposed to quantify the characteristics of planation surface. The LPIs were calculated based on the summit surfaces formed according to the clustering results of peaks. Ten typical areas in the Ordos Platform located in the central part of the Loess Plateau of China are chosen as the test areas for investigating their planation characteristics with the LPI. The experimental results indicate that the LPI can be effectively used to quantify the characteristics of planation surfaces. In addition, the LPI can be further used to depict the patterns of spatial differentiation in the Ordos Platform. Although the present Ordos Platform area is full of the high-density gullies, its planation characteristics is found to be well preserved. Furthermore, the characteristics of the planation surfaces can also reflect the original morphology of the Ordos Platform before the loess dusts deposition process evolved in this area. The statistical results of the LPI show that there is a gradually increasing tendency along with the increasing of slope gradient of summit surface. It indicates that the characteristics of planation surfaces vary among test areas with different landforms. These findings help to deepen the understanding of planation characteristics of the loess landform and its underlying paleotopography. Results of this study can be also served as an important theoretical reference value for revealing the evolutionary process of loess landform.     

Characteristics and influencing factors of proximity distance index on the northern Shaanxi Loess Plateau in China

Topographic feature points and lines are the framework of topography, and their spatial distance relationship is an breakthrough in the study of topographical geometry, internal structure and development level. Proximity distance(PD) is an indicator to describe the distance between the gully source point(GSP) and the watershed boundary. In the upstream catchment area, PDs can be expressed by the streamline proximity distance(SPD), as well as by the horizontal proximity distance(HPD) and the vertical proximity distance(VPD) in the horizontal and vertical dimensions, respectively. The series of indicators(e.g., SPD, HPD and VPD) are important for quantifying the geomorphological development process of a loess basin because of the headward erosion of loess gullies. In this study, the digital elevation model data with 5 m resolution and a digital topographic analysis method are used for the statistical analyses of the SPD, VPD and HPD in 50 sample areas of 6 geomorphic types in the Loess Plateau of northern Shaanxi. The spatial characteristics and the influencing factors are also analysed. Results show that: 1) Central tendencies for the HPDs and the VPDs for the whole study area and the six typical loess landforms are evident. 2) Spatial patterns of the HPDs and the VPDs exhibit evident trends and zonal distributions over the whole study area. 3) The HPDs have a strong positive correlation with gully density(GD) and hypsometric integral. The VPDs also correlates with GD to an extent. Vegetation cover, mean annual precipitation and loess thickness have stronger effects on the VPD than on the HPD.     

基于随机森林的黄土地貌分类研究

地貌分类在指导人类建设活动的规模与布局中有着重要的意义。然而,传统的基于数字高程模型(DEM)的地貌分类方法使用的地形因子和考虑到的地貌特征往往比较单一。本文提出了一种基于流域单元的地貌分类方法,该方法考虑了流域单元的多方面特征,包括基本地形因子统计量、地形特征点线统计量、小流域特征和纹理特征。本研究首先基于DEM进行水文分析将研究区域划分成不同的小流域。然后利用数字地形分析提取29个不同方面的特征来表征流域的形态,并基于随机森林(RF)算法进行了特征选择和参数标定。RF是一种基于决策树算法的集成分类器,能有效地处理高维数据,分类精度高。最后选择训练集小流域对RF分类器进行训练,使用训练完成的分类器对整个研究区域的地貌进行分类,研究地貌分异的规律。该实验在我国陕北黄土高原典型黄土地貌区域的地貌分类中取得了较好的结果,结果表明不同的地貌之间存在明显的区域界线,特定的地貌类型在空间上表现出明显的聚集性。通过人工判读进行验证的分类精度达到了85%,Kappa系数为0.83。     

坡谱信息熵尺度效应及空间分异

选取陕北黄土高原48个不同地貌类型区,以其对应的1∶10000及1∶50000数字高程模型(DEM)为数据源,运用比较分析与数理统计的方法,分析了坡谱信息熵在陕北黄土高原的空间分异特征及尺度效应。结果显示,坡谱的信息熵在一定程度上可以反映地表的复杂度,坡谱信息熵和沟壑密度间有较好的幂函数关系,随着坡谱信息熵的增大,样区沟壑密度也增大。坡谱信息熵的空间分异和陕北黄土高原的黄土地貌形态在空间上的变异是相关的,可将其作为地貌类型划分的判别因子之一。     

黄土高原晚更新世的植被与气候环境

在被认为孢粉贫乏的黄土中分析出了大量孢粉,首次作出了黄土地层的孢粉浓度图式。根据１０余个剖面上孢粉组合的变化,阐明了晚更新世的植被与气候在时间上演替与空间上分布的规律,证明了各地植被在时间上的演变韵律十分相似,说明它们同受全球气候变化的控制,但同一时期在空间上各地植被不尽相同,此乃局地自然环境差异所致。根据植被变化重建了古气温曲线。     

青海省西宁市大墩岭黄土剖面元素组分变化与第四纪古气候演化

根据黄土剖面中古土壤系列与砂质黄土中常量元素氧化物含量基本特征,主要地质特征、黄土堆积与古土壤形成古气候环境、演化过程与主要元素组分特征、关系进行了讨论,结合孢粉测年等资料,1.19MaB.P.黄土形成以来的气候演变过程与元素组分变化关系。     

基于DEM的黄土地貌逼近度因子构建及特征分析

沟谷源点作为沟沿线上最为活跃的部位,其分别到上游分水线、下游沟谷线的流线空间比对关系,是表征三线空间结构的重要突破口。它在空间上向流域分水线逼近的程度,是量化黄土流域地貌系统发育程度的重要切入点。为探究黄土地貌区流域沟谷源点向流域分水线逼近的程度,揭示黄土流域地貌发育进程及该进程所表现的主要侵蚀方式,本文从水平和垂直2个维度,构建量化三线空间结构关系的核心因子--逼近度(PI),其中包括水平逼近度(HPI)和垂直逼近度(VPI),基于5 m分辨率数字高程模型,在陕北黄土高原遴选了包含16种地貌类型的42个样区,利用数字地形分析方法,探讨其平均值(MHPI, MVPI)的空间分异规律。另外,选择其中南北序列分别代表黄土塬、残塬、梁状丘陵沟壑和峁状丘陵沟壑区的淳化、宜君、甘泉和绥德4个地区,完备包含一至五级别沟谷的典型流域为重点实验样区,探讨陕北黄土高原流域尺度平均逼近度变异指数(MPIV)序列性特征。实验结果表明:①陕北黄土高原平均逼近度(MPI)存在强烈的空间自相关,MHPI在南北序列上先增大后减小,东西方向上逐渐减小,在黄河沿岸峡谷丘陵区MHPI达到最大;MVPI由西南-东北先减小后增加,由西北-东南逐渐减小,在渭北黄土台塬区达到最小;②在流域尺度上,MPIV值的正负与黄土塬区、丘陵沟壑区敏感相关;③4个重点样区MHPI、MVPI与其它地形因子存在南北序列上的一致性。104个外部汇流区平均水平逼近度与平均坡度相关性较好(P=0.43, a<0.001),平均垂直逼近度与面积高程积分强烈相关(P=0.75, a<0.001)。平均逼近度指标综合考量了黄土高原地区最典型的三条具有结构控制意义特征线的空间关系,对黄土地貌的发育程度有明显的指示性意义。     

Hazards and landscape changes (degradations) on Hungarian karst mountains due to natural and human effects

In order to study the karstological processes within the karst ecological system,the geohazards and degradation of karst landscapes on the karst areas of the Bakony mountains(Hungary),we investigated the abiotic elements of the environment,soil and cover deposits,erosion soil decay;the changes in the quantity and quality of karst waters:contamination at swallow holes,contamination of karst springs;and the biogenic factors:surface vegetation coverage by the corine land cover method,plant-ecological examinations,qualification of surface waters with the help of biological water labeling.We recognized that the increasing human activities during the past few centuries have had significant impact on the investigated landscapes of karst areas because of their spatial sensitivity.In the scope of our research we concluded that the landscape changes due to natural and human effects can vary strongly on the different karst areas.These differences can arise from the climatic and geomorphologic situation,the coverlayer’s qualities,etc.,but primarily from the different utilization of the investigated karst areas(e.g.the intensity,characteristics and territorial extension of utilization).On the spot investigation we detected traces of new and fast geomorphological processes(gully formation,landslides,collapses,new sinkhole development) and landforms(sinkholes,gullies,swallow holes),which are clear evidences of the effect of climatic changes.