Change trends for desertified lands in the Horqin Sandy Land at the beginning of the twenty-first century

The dynamics of desertification in the Horqin Sandy Land between 2000 and 2005 were analyzed using Landsat TM/ETM images and the data-processing function of geographical information software. The results showed that the extent of desertified land decreased at a rate of slightly more than 0.1 km² year⁻¹, from 22,423.1 km² in 2000 to 22,422.4 km² in 2005, indicating that desertification has been controlled in this area and that desert areas may be approaching a steady state. The dynamics of desertification differed among land types. Desertification decreased most obviously in areas of previous desert land. The area in which desertification was ameliorated was higher than the area that underwent further degradation, but non-desertified land (113.3 km²) deteriorated at a rate of 22.7 km² year⁻¹ during this period. This significant change requires careful attention by managers in the study area.     

近30a来若尔盖盆地沙漠化时空演变过程及成因分析

在遥感(RS)和地理信息系统(GIS)技术的支持下,采用1975年的MSS影像和2005年的TM影像对若尔盖盆地土地沙漠化的时空演变进行了监测。研究发现,从1975年到2005年的30年间,若尔盖盆地的沙漠化土地以年均70.18 km2的速度发展,共增加了2105.36 km2,其中主要以中、轻度沙漠化土地的增加为主,增加面积分别为957.13和1146.75 km2;重度沙漠化土地变化很小,仅增加了1.48 km2。在1965—2007年,若尔盖盆地年平均气温升高了1.41℃,年平均降水减少了34 mm,人类活动对环境的破坏作用加强,严重过度放牧,因此该地区沙漠化发展是自然环境变化和人类活动共同作用的结果。     

Driving forces of aeolian desertification in the source region of the Yellow River: 1975–2005

The source region of the Yellow River, located in the northeastern portion of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, plays a critical role in water conservation, biodiversity protection, and wetland conservation. Aeolian desertification of this area is an important concern. Remote sensing and GIS technology were employed to assess the trends in aeolian desertification from 1975 to 2005. The monitoring results showed that, aeolian desert land increased from 15,112 to 17,214 km² during 1975–2005. In addition, it was found that the area of aeolian desertification increased rapidly from 1975 to 1990, was stable from 1990 to 2000, and slightly decreased from 2000 to 2005. Increasing temperature, overgrazing, and drainage of wetlands have been key driving factors of aeolian desertification. Thus, to control the expansion of aeolian desert lands in the source region of the Yellow River and to rehabilitate existing desert areas, the priority should be given to altering human behavior in these areas.     

Aeolian desertification and its causes in the Zoige Plateau of China’s Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau

Studies and efforts to control aeolian desertification in China have focused on the arid and semiarid lands in the north. However, the aeolian desertification that is occurring on the high-altitude Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau, which has a cold and humid climate, has received attention only in recent years. In this paper, we report the results of monitoring this aeolian desertification between 1975 and 2005 and of our analysis of its causes on the Zoige Plateau, which is located in the northeastern part of China’s Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. Aeolian desertified lands expanded at a compound annual rate of 4.07% between 1975 and 2005. They expanded most rapidly between 1975 and 1990, at an annual rate of 7.73%. Factors responsible for this expansion include increasing temperature, decreasing precipitation, over-grazing, drainage of water systems, and land reclamation for agriculture. Increasing temperature, over-grazing, and the drainage of water systems were the key factors. The climatic variations between 1975 and 2005 were not sufficient by themselves to lead to aeolian desertification. Human disturbances such as over-grazing and drainage of water systems must thus have been primarily responsible for the observed changes, and human behavior must be adjusted to control the expansion of aeolian desertification and rehabilitate the desertified lands.     

Land use history and status of land desertification in the Heihe River basin

An analysis, over historical times, of the influence of natural factors such as climate, geological activity, existing landforms, and the activity of aeolian sands on the desertification of oases and other lands in the Heihe River basin of northwestern China revealed that desertification occurred more or less quickly according to whether the prevailing climate was cold or warm, respectively. In the 1990s, the area of desertified lands in the lower reaches of the Heihe River (Ejin region) was 29.1% greater than in the mid 1980s. However, the rate of desertification in the middle reaches of the Heihe River basin was relatively slower, only 9.4% from 1949 to 1990 (or 0.27% per year). Since 1990, the rate of desertification has been stable. By 2000, the total area of land desertification in the mid to lower reaches of the Heihe River basin was 13,508.4 km², or 11.8% of the region monitored. Of the total land desertification area, the regions of Linze, Gaotai, Sunan, Jiuquan, Jia Yuguan, and Jinta accounted for 1.70, 1.71, 1.43, 0.85, 0.28, and 9.39%, respectively, whereas the Ejin region’s 11,434.64 km² accounted for 84.65%, indicating that land desertification in the lower Heihe River basin was particularly severe. The causes responsible for the occurrence and development of land desertification in the Heihe River basin were analyzed.     

Rocky desertification and its causes in karst areas: a case study in Yongshun County,Hunan Province,China

Rocky desertification, a process of land degradation characterized by soil erosion and bedrock exposure, is one of the most serious land degradation problems in karst areas, and is regarded as an obstacle to local sustainable development. It is well known that human activities can accelerate rocky desertification; however, the effects of climate change on rocky desertification in karst areas are still unclear. This study focused on the effects of temperature and precipitation changes and human activities on rocky desertification in karst areas to determine the impacts of climate change and human disturbances on rocky desertification. Areas of different level of rocky desertification were obtained from Landsat TM (1987) and Landsat ETM+ (2000) images. The results show that, although the total desertification area increased by only 1.27% between 1987 and 2000, 17.73% of the slightly desertified land had degraded to a moderate or intense level, 2.01 and 15.71%, respectively. Meanwhile, between 1987 and 2000, the air temperature increased by 0.7°C, and precipitation increased by 170 mm. Statistical results indicate that the increase in precipitation was caused by heavy rainfall. In addition, under the interactive influences of heavy rainfall and temperature, the average karst dissolution rate was about 87 m³ km⁻² a⁻¹ during the 14 years in the study area. Further analysis indicated that rocky desertification was positively related with the increase in temperature and precipitation and especially with the heavy rainfall events. Climate change accelerated rocky desertification in the karst areas. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

沙质荒漠化的遥感监测与评估──以中国北方沙质荒漠化区内的实践为例

土地荒漠化已成为受其影响地区经济发展和环境保护的一个重要障碍,及时了解其过程、现状和发展趋势,对确定荒漠化防治的战略和措施均有重要意义。本文以我国北方沙质荒漠化为研究对象,对其开展了遥感监测和评估及其方法论的研究。结果表明,在沙质荒漠化土地程度分级和遥感监测判别指标体系确立后,采用合适的方法可以在短时间内完成大范围的动态监测,使对土地沙质荒漠化的定量评价成为可能。     

Aeolian desertification from the mid-1970s to 2005 in Otindag Sandy Land, Northern China

Aeolian desertification in Otindag Sandy Land has expanded dramatically during the past 50 years. This research explored processes and causes of aeolian desertification in the study area. The results showed that aeolian desertification development in Zhenglan Qi of typical region located at the center in the study area can be divided into three stages including rapid occurrence before 1987, parts of rehabilitation and most of deterioration from 1987 to 2000 and little rapid rehabilitation occurrence from 2000 to 2005, according to remote sensing images and field investigations. Gradually declining MI indicated that climate change was not the major cause of aeolian desertification development during the last 40 years, while increasing population should be the underlying cause of local aeolian desertification. Irrational human activities mainly including unsuitable reclamation in the 1960s and lasting over-grazing after 1980 are direct causes contributing to local aeolian desertification, especially over-grazing, while climate change often played a revealer of irrational human activities mainly through drought events. Over-grazing and undesirable climate have different functions during the whole aeolian desertification process. Over-grazing gradually changed grasslands to slight aeolian desertified lands at the initial stage, while climate with windy days or droughts often accelerated formation of serious aeolian desertified lands. Aeolian desertification in the study area both possesses occurrence possibility and great rehabilitative potential. At present, more integrated countermeasures combating local aeolian desertification still are expected.     

Landscape change and sandy desertification in arid areas: a case study in the Zhangye Region of Gansu Province, China

The Zhangye Region of Gansu Province is an important agricultural base in arid northwestern China. During the twentieth century, especially in the last five decades, the region has experienced sandy desertification. To document the status and causes of this deterioration, satellite images, meteorological and socioeconomic data to assess landscape change from 1993 to 2002 were interpreted and analyzed. The results show that during the intervening 9-year period the area of sandy lands has increased by 642.2 km², which consist of aeolian sand dune (357.1 km²) and potential sandy land (216.3 km²). Although the development and reversion of sandy desertification co-exist, the sandy desertification in this area seems serious and is attributable to the irrational use of water and land.     

遥感与GIS支持下的松嫩平原农牧交错区土地沙漠化调查研究

以1986年和2000年两个时期的LANDSATTM数据作为主要信息源,对松嫩平原农牧交错区的土地沙漠化现状、程度和发展趋势进行遥感解译和实地调查。分析研究结果表明:区域内的土地沙漠化总体上呈逆转趋势。主要表征为沙漠化土地面积减少,平均每年减少0.71×10⁴hm²,年递减率为0.8%;沙漠化程度渐轻,微度沙漠化土地增加92.9%,而轻、中、重度沙漠化土地减少了44.3%。该地区的土地沙漠化整体上以逆转趋势为主,还有一些局部区域沙漠化程度仍在发展,土地沙漠化的状况不容忽视。人类活动对区域土地沙漠化的影响比较明显,气候变化和地理环境也对土地沙漠化产生重要的影响,沙漠化土地类型由以草地为主转为以旱地为主。     

中国土地荒漠化的概念、成因与防治

荒漠化是指人类历史时期以来,由于人类不合理的经济活动和脆弱生态环境相互作用造成土地生产力下降,土地资源丧失,地表呈现类似荒漠景观的土地退化过程。在中国北方荒漠化形成因素中过度放牧占30．1％,过度农垦占26．9％,过度樵采占32．7％,水资源利用不当占96％,工矿交通建设中不注意环境保护占0．7％,在地区上以北方农牧交错及旱农地区荒漠化最为严重。要采取因地制宜措施和建立健全而完善的治理实施系统以达到生态、经济和社会三个效益的目的。     

Landslide dam and subsequent dam-break flood estimation using HEC-RAS model in Northern Pakistan

On the morning of January 4, 2010, a massive landslide swept the Attabad and Sarat villages into the Hunza River. The debris from the landslide blocked the low-lying river, creating a barrier lake in the area and poses a major threat to the villages located downstream. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the environmental advantages and disadvantages created by the formation of the artificial lake. For this purpose, Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data were used to create the contours and triangulated irregular network (TIN) of the region. Data from ??Google Earth?? image on March 19, 2010 were used as the reference and to determine the river bed elevation of the study area. Landsat satellite data of Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) sensor on January 10, March 15, April 24 and May 2, 2010, were used for constructing the Geographic Information System (GIS) layers of the river banks, land use area, overbank flow area and water area estimation. Our results show that the area covered by the water in the lake has increased from 1.28?km² on January 10, 2010 to 6.25?km² on May 2, 2010. The total upstream urban area affected by the river blockage is 13.99?km². We also applied the Hydrologic Engineering Center River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) model to estimate the potential catastrophes due to dam burst for different peak outflow scenarios with conclusions and recommendations.     

中国沙漠化研究的理论与实践

中国的沙漠化研究的理论与实践在过去的十多年里取得了一些成果。据此,本文对沙漠化的概念、成因、过程、指征、后果、发展趋势及其治理等方面进行扼要的介绍。研究表明,沙漠化是一种人为活动与自然资源、环境不相协调所产生的以风沙活动为主要标志的土地退化过程。我国北方沙漠化土地的蔓延速率从50年代末期至70年代中期的年均1560km²发展到近十多年来的年均2100km²;实践证明,沙漠化土地作为一种土地资源可以通过合理的整治过程而恢复其原有的生产潜力。     

Relationships between rocky desertification and spatial pattern of land use in typical karst area,Southwest China

Karst rocky desertification is a typical type of land degradation in the Southwest China. An attempt was made to study quantitatively the relationships between rocky desertification and spatial pattern of land use through applying spatial analysis of Geographical Information System in Nandong underground river system, a typical karst area, Southwest China. The spatial distribution of rocky desertification and spatial pattern of land use were obtained from interpreting Landsat Images in Nandong area in 2007 by supervised classifications, and verified and rectified through field survey. The results indicate that: (1) the total land deserted area covers 378.3 km², or 23.4% of the total area, of which intense, moderate and slight rocky desertification covers 269.46, 54.2, and 54.63 km², respectively, in Nandong area. (2) There is an obvious effect of spatial pattern of land use on rocky desertification. With the increase of elevation and slope, there is a higher occurrence ratio of rocky desertification in the cultivated land and grass land. Also, more than half of total rocky desertification was dominated within the areas of 4 km from the construction land, and 97% of total rocky desertification was dominated within the areas of 10 km from the construction land in Nandong area. And what can be known from the data is that the primary effect distance of human on rocky desertification from the construction land is 4 km, and the farthest effect distance of human on rocky desertification from the construction land is 10 km in Nandong area.     

Remote sensing-based dynamic monitoring and environmental change of wetlands in southern Mongolian Plateau in 2000–2018

The environmental change in the wetlands in the southern Mongolian Plateau has important impacts on the environment of North China and even the entire Northeast Asia, from which the global climate change can be understood on a large scale, especially the climate change in the Mongolian Plateau. This study extracted the information on the wetlands from three stages of remote sensing images (also referred to as RS images) of the study area, including Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) images of 2000, TM images of 2010, and Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) images of 2018. As indicated by the extraction results, the area of wetlands decreased from 796.90 km² of 2000 to 666.24 km² of 2018 at a rate of 7.26 km²/a. The reduced area is 130.66 km², which is about 16.4% reduction. And the patch number of wetlands decreased from 731 of 2000 to 316 of 2018 in the study area, approximately 56.8% reduction (415 patches), and the decrease in the area of the wetlands mainly occurred in the northwest endorheic region. In terms of wetland types, the change of the wetlands was dominated by the decrease of lacustrine wetlands, of which the area and patch number decreased by 106.2 km² and 242, respectively. Furthermore, the area of the lacustrine wetlands decreased at the highest rate of 8.70 km²/a in 2010–2018. From the perspective of spatial distribution, the wetlands in the western part shrunk more notably than those in the eastern part as a whole in the study area. According to local meteorological data, the precipitation gently decreased and the temperature increased (about 1.7^°C) from 1975–2018. Overall, the decrease in the area of the wetlands and the temperature rises in the study area were mainly driven by the Mongolian monsoon climate, reduction in precipitation, and human activities.     

Mapping land cover change of the Luvuvhu catchment, South Africa for environmental modelling

Considerable land cover changes have occurred in the Luvuvhu catchment in northeastern South Africa in the past two decades. These changes are associated with human population growth and may be contributing to observed reductions in winter river baseflows and increased episodes of river drying within Kruger National Park. Six-class land cover maps of the catchment were created from 1978 (MSS) and 2005 (TM) Landsat imagery using an iterative technique. Results indicate a 1,000 km² (12%) increase in Bare Ground between 1978 and 2005, with a concomitant decrease in shrubland and indigenous forest cover. Overall classification accuracy in the 2005 image was 80%. Classification was most accurate for Water and Pine classes (100 and 92%) and least accurate for Indigenous Forest (46%), primarily due to misclassification as Shrubland. These maps are suitable for land cover change and landscape modeling analyses, and can serve as baseline data for further research.     

Comparative analyses of East Texas forest cover maps generated from Landsat and AVHRR data

Comparing satellite data derived map products are affected by differences in data characteristics, image acquisition dates, processing techniques, and classification schemes used for assigning pixels to a thematic class. By comparing two forest maps generated from Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) images acquired on the same day, and processed using identical classification scheme and methods these differences were minimized. The ETM+ derived map had higher classification accuracy values and more precise area estimates than the AVHRR derived map. In the ETM+ derived map, 87 of the 599 verification data were misclassified, whereas in the AVHRR derived map, 155 of the 469 verification data were misclassified. Detailed error analyses by land cover class revealed that a land use based definition of forest accounted for 74% (64 out of 87) and 57% (89 out of 155) of the classification errors in ETM+ and AVHRR derived maps, respectively.     

Urban land use/land cover changes in the Tema metropolitan area (1990–2010)

Land use and land cover changes are local and place specific, occurring incrementally in ways that often escape our attention. This study sought to detect changes in land cover in the Tema Metropolis of Ghana from 1990 to 2010. Multispectral Landsat Thematic Mapper data sets of 1990, 2000 and 2007 were acquired, pre-processed and enhanced. Unsupervised classification of the images was performed and six land cover classes (water, wetlands, closed vegetation, open vegetation, cropped lands, and built-up) were derived. The post-classification change detection technique was performed to derive the changes in land cover and their corresponding change matrices. Between 1990 and 2010, built-up areas expanded steadily to become the most prevalent land cover type in the metropolis, reducing vegetation cover dramatically. High population growth with its attendant rise in the demand for housing, and increasing commercial activities, were found to have influenced land cover changes over the period.     

Recent trends on glacier area retreat over the group of Nevados Caullaraju-Pastoruri (Cordillera Blanca,Peru) using Landsat imagery

The Cordillera Blanca, located in the central zone of the Andes Mountains in Peru, has shown a retreat in its glaciers. This paper presents a trend analysis of the glacier area over the groups of Nevados Caullaraju-Pastoruri from 1975 to 2010 using Landsat-5 Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery. In the case of the Nevados Pastoruri/Tuco, the study period was extended back to 1957 by using an aerial photograph taken that year. The extent of clean glacier ice was estimated using Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) thresholds. Moreover, the estimation of debris-covered glacier ice was retrieved by means of a decision tree classification method using NDSI, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Land Surface Temperature (LST). Area estimations derived from Landsat imagery were compared to the glacier ground-truth data in 1975 and 2010. Results show a statistically significant (p < 0.05) decreasing trend over the whole study area. Total glacier area decreased at a rate of 4.5 km² per decade from 1975 to 2010, with a total loss of 22.5 km² (58%). Lower decreasing rates were found for the period 1987–2010: 3.5 km² per decade with a total loss of 7.7 km² (32.5%). In the case of the Nevados Pastoruri/Tuco, decreasing rates of clean ice extent were constant for the periods 1957–2010, 1975–2010 and 1987–2010, with values close to 1.4 km² per decade and a total loss between 1957 and 2010 estimated at about 5 km² (54%). This work shows an evident area decrease in the Caullaraju-Pastoruri tropical glaciers, which needs to be included in a future hydrological scenario of local adaptability and water management.     

Spatial pattern of Karst rock desertification in the Middle of Guizhou Province,Southwestern China

Karst rocky desertification is a typical type of land degradation in the Southwestern China. It has great ecological and economical implications for the local people. Landsat images from the middle of Guizhou Province collected in 1974, 1993 and 2001 were used for change detection of the pattern of Karst rocky desertification. The results show the following findings: (1) Desertification area expanded drastically in 27 years, at an increasing rate about 116.2 km²/year. (2) High areas (900–1,500 m) are the most affected. (3) Areas with the slope <5° or >25° are also easily tend to be Karst rocky deserted. (4) The process of Karst rocky desertification is nearly irreversible. Few areas of Karst rocky desertification could be meliorated to non-desertification land. (5) Most of the degraded lands are located in the south and the central of the study region, and the meliorated land areas are sparsely located in the east and the west part of the region. All these findings would provide bases for the decision-making of the local government to improve the Karst rocky desertification