Russia at GHG Market

In the first Kyoto commitment period Russia could be the major supplier for the greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions market. Potential Russian supply depends on the ability of Russia to keep GHG emissions lower than the Kyoto target. In the literature there is no common understanding of the total trading potential of Russia at the international carbon market. In this paper we focus on CO₂ emission, which constituted nearly 80%of Russian GHG emission. We compare different projections of Russian CO₂emission and analyze the most important factors, which predetermine the CO₂emission growth. In a transition economy these factors are: Gross Domestic Product(GDP) dynamic, changes of GDP structure, innovation activity, transformation of export-import flows and response to the market signals. The input-output macroeconomic model with the two different input-output tables representing old and new production technologies has been applied for the analysis to simulate technological innovations and structural changes in the Russian economy during transition period. The Russian supply at the international GHG market without forest sector may be up to 3 billion metric ton of CO₂ equivalent. Earlier actions to reduce CO₂ emission are critical to insure theRussiansupply at the international carbon market. With regard to the current status of the Russian capital market, the forward trading with OECD countries is only the possibility to raise initial investments to roll no-regret and low-cost GHG reduction. This paper discusses uncertainties of RussianCO₂emission dynamics and analyzes the different incentives to lower the emission pathway.     

A mirage at Regina

The Dirt Hills, located roughly forty miles to the southwest of the Regina Weather Office, at Regina, Saskatchewan, were clearly visible on the horizon in the early morning of the 29th day of August 1972 from the Regina Weather Office. This mirage was documented and a picture of it was taken.     

Comparing CO2 Storage and Advection Conditions at Night at Different Carboeuroflux Sites

Anemometer and CO₂ concentration data from temporary campaigns performed at six CARBOEUROFLUX forest sites were used to estimate the importance of non-turbulent fluxes in nighttime conditions. While storage was observed to be significant only during periods of both low turbulence and low advection, the advective fluxes strongly influence the nocturnal CO₂ balance, with the exception of almost flat and highly homogeneous sites. On the basis of the main factors determining the onset of advective fluxes, the ‘advection velocity’, which takes net radiation and local topography into account, was introduced as a criterion to characterise the conditions of storage enrichment/depletion. Comparative analyses of the six sites showed several common features of the advective fluxes but also some substantial differences. In particular, all sites where advection occurs show the onset of a boundary layer characterised by a downslope flow, negative vertical velocities and negative vertical CO₂ concentration gradients during nighttime. As a consequence, vertical advection was observed to be positive at all sites, which corresponds to a removal of CO₂ from the ecosystem. The main differences between sites are the distance from the ridge, which influences the boundary-layer depth, and the sign of the mean horizontal CO₂ concentration gradients, which is probably determined by the source/sink distribution. As a consequence, both positive and negative horizontal advective fluxes (corresponding respectively to CO₂ removal from the ecosystem and to CO₂ supply to the ecosystem) were observed. Conclusive results on the importance of non-turbulent components in the mass balance require, however, further experimental investigations at sites with different topographies, slopes, different land covers, which would allow a more comprehensive analysis of the processes underlying the occurrence of advective fluxes. The quantification of these processes would help to better quantify nocturnal CO₂ exchange rates.     

Solar UV-A and UV-B radiation fluxes at two Alpine stations at different altitudes

Summary Daily totals of UV-A and UV-B radiation fluxes and global radiation were measured since 1981 at Jungfraujoch (3576 m) a.s.l.) and in Innsbruck (577 m a.s.l.) in their seasonal course. The altitude effect of annual totals yields 19%/1000 m (UV-B), 11%/1000 m (UV-A) and 9%/1000 m (global radiation) with reference to Innsbruck station. The ratio of the daily totals of UV-B/global radiation shows a significant seasonal course with the maximum in summer, whereas the ratio of the daily totals of UV-A/global radiation shows no significant seasonal variation. The biological effective doses of erythema reaction, delayed tanning and immediate tanning by UV-A and UV-B radiant exposure are reported in the seasonal course at Jungfraujoch and in Innsbruck.Dedicated to O. Univ.-Prof. Dr. F. Steinhauser.With 6 Figures     

Estimation of air temperature at 5 cm above grassland at the Zagreb-Maksimir Observatory

Summary The possibility of estimating air temperature at 5 cm above grassland is examined using an empirical, as well as a theoretical approach. For this purpose, hourly data (air temperature, cloudiness, air pressure and wind speed) at the Zagreb-Maksimir Observatory (Croatia) for the period June–August 1975 have been used. A clustering procedure has been applied to form groups of days having similar diurnal variations in air temperature difference between 5 cm and 2 m. This procedure has identified, three groups of similar days (types). The air temperature at 5 cm above grassland has been estimated using multiple regression and a method which is based on the Monin–Obukhov similarity theory. The results obtained are more accurate for near-neutral stability conditions, i.e. during cloudy weather (Type 1), and the least accurate in the case of a clear sky (Type 3). Through clustering, systematic errors have been discovered in these approaches, which are briefly discussed.     

The local wind field at Ny-Å lesund and the Zeppelin mountain at Svalbard

Summary Using a triaxial Doppler sodar the planetary boundary-layer structure and the wind flow dynamics at the Arctic site Ny-?lesund have been studied. The relationship between winds measured at Ny-?lesund and at the nearby atmospheric research station on Zeppelin mountain was investigated for the first time. While Ny-?lesund receives predominantly katabatic flow (from 120°) from the Kongsvegen glacier, the field is rotated within the lowest 500 m and arrives at Zeppelin from southerly directions. Received January 12, 2000/Revised November 21, 2000     

Wind shear at tilted inversions

Vertical wind shear at a temperature inversion can be caused by baroclinicity associated with a tilt of the inversion. Four observational cases of tilted inversions are presented. The tilts on horizontal scales of 20–100 km range from 2–10 × 10^-3 and the vertical wind shear is between 1 and 25 m/s per 100 m. In general, there is remarkable agreement between observed and geostrophic wind shear.The observations show that the inversion tilt is particularly strong at the edges of mesoscale cloud fields. The Richardson number can reach subcritical values. Cloud fields may be surrounded by a cyclonically rotating wind field and cloud gaps by an anticyclonically rotating wind field.     

The radiation balance at Copenhagen

Summary At the Climate and Water Balance Station of the Danish Hydrotechnical Laboratory near Copenhagen incoming radiation has been recorded continuously since 1954 by means of Moll thermopiles in Kipp & Zonen solarimeters and further, since 1955, reflected radiation, too. Since 1956 also net radiation and net long-wave radiation has been recorded by means of thermopiles in heat flow transducers from Beckman & Whitley used as radiometers.Mean daily values are given for incoming radiation as well as monthly mean values for reflected radiation, net long-wave radiation and net radiation. Recorded and calculated values of net long-wave radiation are given and discussed.

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Zusammenfassung An der Klima- und Wasserhaushaltsstation des Dänischen Hydrotechnischen Laboratoriums bei Kopenhagen wurde seit 1954 dauernd die Einstrahlung mittels Moll-Thermosäulen in Kipp & Zonen-Solarimetern registriert und außerdem seit 1955 die Albedo. Seit 1956 wurden auch die Strahlungsbilanz und die effektive Ausstrahlung mittels Thermosäulen in Beckman & Whitley-Wärmestrommessern, die als Strahlungsmesser verwendet wurden, registriert.In einigen Tabellen werden tägliche Mittelwerte der Einstrahlung mitgeteilt wie auch Monatsmittelwerte der Reflexstrahlung, der effektiven Ausstrahlung und der Strahlungsbilanz. Ferner werden beobachtete und berechnete Werte der langwelligen Strahlungsbilanz angeführt und diskutiert.

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Résumé On a effectué des enregistrements du rayonnement incident depuis 1954 et de l'albédo depuis 1955 à la Station d'économie climatologique et hydrologique du laboratoire danois d'hydrotechnique près de Copenhague. Le bilan radiatif fut également mesuré depuis 1956 ainsi que le rayonnement émis effectif.Les auteurs donnent ici des tableaux de valeurs journalières moyennes du rayonnement incident, des moyennes mensuelles de l'albédo, du rayonnement effectif et du bilan radiatif. Enfin des valeurs enregistrés et calculés du rayonnement effectif, sont présentés et discutés.

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With 5 Figures     

奥林匹克山气象试验:对雷达卫星(GPM)的地空观测验证与应用

做这样的试验,既可以标定卫星资料的精度,也可以对奥林匹克山伴随特殊中纬度地形产生的复杂天气系统进行研究,还可以改进卫星雷达在这一区域反演降水的算法。初次听说奥林匹克山(图1)气象试验时,习惯上会联想到希腊,以为是在欧洲发生的事。细查一下,奥林匹克山是在美国,位于华盛顿州西北角毗邻太平洋的一个半岛上,这个半岛也被称之为奥林匹克半岛。这样命名,多少与希腊有关,英国人18世纪深入到这个半岛后,被这里壮美的山脉所吸引,感觉很像希腊诸神居住的奥林匹斯山脉,便开始以奥林匹克山相称。     

Another look at sonic thermometry

In this note we reassess the role of sonic thermometry in boundary-layer studies. The sonic temperature signal, when corrected for crosswind velocity contamination, very closely approximates the virtual temperature of air. This variable is needed for many boundary-layer calculations. We describe preliminary tests with a new sonic anemometer-thermometer that performs the velocity correction in real time. Our test results offer new insights into the nature of the velocity error on temperature standard deviations and fluxes. They also draw attention to the high noise threshold that appears as an f ⁺¹ rise in the fS(f) spectrum when spectral levels drop below 10^-4 °C².     

Vegetation Feedback at the Mid-Pliocene

A global atmospheric general circulation model and an asynchronously coupled global atmosphere-biome model are used to simulate vegetation feedback at the mid-Pliocene approximately 3.3 to 3.0 million years ago.For that period,the simulated vegetation differed from present conditions at 62%of the global ice-free land surface.Vegetation feedback had little overall impact on the global climate of the mid-Pliocene.At the regional scale,however,the interactive vegetation led to statistically significant increases in annual temperature over Greenland,the high latitudes of North America,the mid-high latitudes of eastern Eurasia,and western Tibet,and reductions in most of the land areas at low latitudes,owing to vegetation-induced changes in surface albedo.     

A comparative study of atmospheric conductivity at ground level and at one meter above ground

Summary Observations made at various locations, with portable apparatus, from within New York City to one-hundred miles of the city show the following results: (1) The total conductivities at ground level and at one meter above ground are not equal. In general, the one-meter conductivity is greater than the ground during the day, but at night the ground value is the greater. Also, for high values of conductivity the total one-meter conductivity is greater than that at ground level. For lower values the reverse is the case. This might not be true for all locations. (2) The ratios of the polar conductivities of one sign at ground level to the corresponding values at one meter are not constant, and the ratio of the total conductivity at ground level to that at one meter is not constant. (3) These ratios depend upon wind velocities, the amount of pollution in the air, on the nature of the terrain, and upon the time, i. e., day or night.(4) Under normal conditions, conductivity rises to an early morning maximum, the ground maximum rising more sharply that the one-meter, and remains fairly constant during the day but drops inthe late afternoon or early evening reaching a minimum between 20h and 22h. (5) When variation in conductivity takes place under constant turbulence (wind 0–1), the one-meter conductivities change more rapidly than those at the ground (except at the time of maximum), where terrain is level. Local conditions may alter the above (e. g., smoky air rising from lower ground). Also, under all conditions the one-meter conductivity is more variable than ground conductivity. (6) Our findings do not confirm those ofP. J. Nolan [1] andA. R. Hogg [2] that the unipolar (positive) conductivity at ground is almost equal to the total conductivity at one meter above ground.

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Zusammenfassung Unsere Beobachtungen über die atmosphärische Leitfähigkeit in Bodenhöhe und einen Meter darüber, die mit einem Gerdienschen Aspirator mit Wulf-Elektrometer in der näheren und weiteren Umgebung der Stadt New York (bis 160 km Entfernung) ausgeführt wurden, führten zu folgenden Resultaten: 1. Die totale Leitfähigkeit der Luft nahe dem Erdboden und in 1 m Höhe ist nicht gleich. Im allgemeinen ist bei höheren Werten die Leitfähigkeit in 1 m Höhe während der Tagesstunden größer als am Erdboden, während es in der Nacht umgekehrt ist. Bei niedrigen Werten der Leitfähigkeit kehrt sich dieses Verhältnis um; doch trifft dies möglicherweise nicht für alle Orte zu. 2. Das Verhältnis der polaren Leitfähigkeit je eines Vorzeichens am Boden zu der entsprechenden in 1 m Höhe ist nicht konstant; dasselbe gilt auch für die Gesamtleitfähigkeit. 3. Die numerischen Werte dieser Verhältniszahlen hängen von der Windgeschwindigkeit (Turbulenz), dem Gehalt der Luft an Verunreinigungen, den Terrainverhältnissen und der Tageszeit ab. 4. Normalerweise erreicht die Leitfähigkeit ein Maximum in den frühen Morgenstunden; dabei erfolgt der Anstieg zum Maximum am Boden steiler als in 1 m Höhe. Während des Tages bleibt die Leitfähigkeit ziemlich konstant, fällt dagegen am späten Nachmittag und erreicht ihr Minimum zwischen 20 Uhr und 22 Uhr. 5. Wenn bei konstanten Turbulenzbedingungen (Windstärke 0–1) eine Änderung der Leitfähigkeit erfolgt, so ändert sich die Leitfähigkeit über ebenem Terrain in 1 m Höhe stärker als am Boden (außer zur Zeit des Hauptmaximums). Lokale Verhältnisse (wie z. B. Rauch) können dies ändern. In allen Fällen ist die Leitfähigkeit in 1 m Höhe stärker veränderlich als am Boden. 6. Unsere Ergebnisse bieten keine Bestätigung der Resultate vonP. J. Nolan [1] undA. R. Hogg [2], wonach die positive Leitfähigkeit am Boden fast ebenso groß ist wie die gesamte Leitfähigkeit in 1 m Höhe über dem Boden.

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Résumé Nos mesures de la conductibilité atmosphérique au niveau du sol et à un mètre de hauteur effectuées avec un aspirateur de Gerdien et un électromètre de Wulf aux environs immédiats et lointains de New-York (jusqu'à 160 km de distance) ont conduit aux résultats suivants. 1. La conductibilite totale au niveau du sol n'est pas la même qu'à un mètre. En général pour les valeurs élevées la conductibilité est plus forte à un mètre qu'au sol pendant le jour; l'inverse a lieu la nuit. Pour les valeurs faibles le phénomène s'inverse, mais ce n'est pas nécessairement le cas partout. 2. Le rapport de la conductibilité polaire de chaque signe au sol à celle qui lui correspond à un mètre n'est pas constant; il en est de même pour la conductibilité totale. 3. La valeur numérique de ces rapports dépend de la vitesse du vent, de la teneur de l'air en impuretés, de la configuration du terrain et du moment de la journée.4. La conductibilité atteint normalement un maximum dans les premières heures du jour; l'accroissement est alors plus rapide au sol qu'à un mètre. Pendant la journée la conductibilité reste sensiblement constante, décroît cependant en fin d'après-midi et atteint son minimum entre 20 et 22 heures. 5. Si par turbulence constante (vitesse du vent 0 à 1) il se produit une variation de la conductibilité, celle-ci varie plus fortement à un mètre qu'au niveau du sol en terrain plat (sauf à l'époque du maximum principal). Les conditions locales, comme la fumée par exemple, peuvent ici apporter des modifications. Dans tous les cas la conductibilité varie davantage à un mètre que sur le sol. 6. Nos résultats ne confirment pas ceux deP. J. Nolan [1] et deA. R. Hogg [2] selon lesquels la conductibilité positive au niveau du sol serait presque aussi grande que la conductibilité totale à la hauteur d'un mètre.

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With 12 Figures.     

Periodicities in sea-level changes at Stockholm

The annual mean sea-level time series for Stockholm (Sweden) for 1825–1984 (160 data points) had a large long-term negative (almost linear, only slightly quadratic) trend. After correcting for the same, the detrended series was subjected to maximum entropy spectral analysis (MESA). Choosing selected periodicities for further multiple regression analysis, series for the first 80 yr (1825–1904) showed periodicities at T = 2.40, 5.0, 6.1, 13.5, 14.8 and 32 yr, significant at a 2 level. The three largest peaks (italicized) had amplitudes of approximately (2.5–3.0) ± 0.8 cm. The latter 80 yr (1905–1984) showed significant periodicities at T= 2.05, 2.7, 3.0, 3.6, 4.4, 5.5, 6.3, 7.7, 9.8, 20.5 and 33 yr. The three largest peaks (italicized) had amplitudes of approximately (2.0–2.5) ± 0.7 cm. The whole period of 160 yr (1825–1984) showed significant periodicities at T = 2.05, 2.9, 3.2, 4.5, 4.9, 5.6, 6.4, 7.8, 11.0, 13.7, 14.8, 29 and 43 yr. The three largest peaks (italicized) had amplitudes of approximately (1.6–1.9) ± 0.6 cm. All these significant peaks explained a variance of only about 30% or less, indicating a large random component of approximately 70%. Peaks at T = 11 yr (sunspot cycle) or T = 18.6 yr (lunar nodal term) were either absent or very weak. Most of the other peaks were transient (present in the first 80 yr or the latter 80 yr) except an uncertain quasibiennial oscillation (QBO) (T = 2–3 yr) and T = 5–6 yr and T 30 yr, which seemed to be persistent throughout the whole period. Some periodicities seem to resemble those seen in the Southern Oscillation (SO) index.     

国家气象中心客观要素预报--MOS系统

面向全国2000多个台站，应用数值预报产品释用MOS技术制作温度、降水、相对湿度、风、云量及能见度等要素预报，并实现了预报业务运行。通过建立MOS预报系统，表明预报因子和预报对象的处理、建方程前的参数选择以及预报因子的选取都会影响要素预报的质量，需要做大量的细致工作。预报检验结果显示，降水预报尚未达到可用程度．温度和相对湿度的短期预报在大多数情况下是可用的或是可参考的，但还有待进一步改进。降水预报尚需在预报因子和充分运用多种探测信息方面加以改进。     

Ozone during stratospheric warmings at Uccle

The day-to-day variations in ozone content at Uccle (51oN) during some stratospheric warming events are ex-amined. In particular, the attention is focused on the timing of commencement of ozone enhancement prior to peak day of warming and on the relationship in the ozone content between the upper and lower stratosphere. These two features are compared with the predictions of ozone transport models. There seems to be an agreement between mod-el predictions and observed features in some cases.     

Kolmogoroff constants at the 1976 ITCE

The high-frequency data from 12 sensors at the ITCE 1976^* are analysed to determine the Kolmogoroff constants for velocity, temperature and humidity fluctuation, _u , _T , and _q . The occurrence of aliasing in the spectral analysis in some cases together with the limited response of some sensors at the higher frequencies introduces some uncertainties into the analysis. The Soviet sonic anemometer, fine-wire thermometer and infrared hygrometer and the Australian infrared hygrometer provide the best information, namely that% MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafiart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9qq-f0-yqaqVeLsFr0-vr% 0-vr0db8meaabaqaciGacaGaaeqabaWaaeaaeaaakeaacqaHXoqyda% WgaaWcbaGaamyDaaqabaGccqGH9aqpcaaIWaGaaiOlaiaaiwdacaaI% 5aGaeyySaeRaaGimaiaac6cacaaIWaGaaGymaiaacYcacaqGGaGaae% iiaiaabccacaqGGaGaeqySde2aaSbaaSqaaiaadsfaaeqaaOGaeyyp% a0JaaGimaiaac6cacaaI2aGaaGioaiabgglaXkaaicdacaGGUaGaaG% imaiaaikdacaGGSaGaaeiiaiaabccacaqGGaGaaeiiaiabeg7aHnaa% BaaaleaacaWGXbaabeaakiabg2da9iaaicdacaGGUaGaaG4naiaaiA% dacqGHXcqScaaIWaGaaiOlaiaaicdacaaIZaaaaa!6248!\[\alpha _u = 0.59 \pm 0.01,{\text{ }}\alpha _T = 0.68 \pm 0.02,{\text{ }}\alpha _q = 0.76 \pm 0.03\]where the errors quoted refer solely to statistical errors. The other instruments provide general support to these values.The technique of using spectral density measurements to determine eddy fluxes is illustrated.International Turbulence Comparison Experiment.     

Atmospheric boundary layer research at Cabauw

At Cabauw, The Netherlands, a 213 m high mast specifically built for meteorological research has been operational since 1973. Its site, construction, instrumentation and observation programs are reviewed. Regarding analysis of the boundary layer at Cabauw, the following subjects are discussed:

- terrain roughness;

- Monin-Obukhov theory in practice;

- the structure of stable boundary layers;

- observed evolution of fog layers;

- inversion rise and early morning entrainment;

- use of the geostrophic wind as a predictor for wind profiles;

- height variation of wind climate statistics;

- air pollution applications: long range transport and short range dispersion;

- dependence of sound wave propagation on boundary-layer structure;

- testing of weather and climate models.

     

Wave forecasting at the Spanish coasts

A wave forecasting system developed by Puertos del Estado (The Spanish holding of harbours) to predict waves at the coast is run in a twice a day cycle with a forecasting horizon of 72 h. This system is driven by wind fields supplied by the Spanish Meteorological Service from the HIRLAM model. Nested within this model a set of local forecasting systems, one for each harbour, covering an area of around 25 × 25 km, has been developed. The narrowness of the Spanish continental shelf requires very high resolution grids to be applied to localised regions near the coast. This fact involves the use of modelling techniques that makes this forecasting system different from other systems implemented in other regions. This article describes the wave forecasting system and the different techniques developed at Puertos del Estado to implement it.