Optical processing of structural contour maps

Optical processing is a fast, easy, economical, and reliable method of quantifying map patterns. A reduced transparency of a zebra-like pattern, obtained by blackening in alternate contour bands of a map, is used as input to an optical system of a laser source and objective lens to produce Fourier transforms. By sampling the intensity distribution across the transform, information about the spatial frequency (periodicity) and orientation in the original map can be inferred. Parameters used for comparing the map images are the values of intensity distribution in the transform. These intensities are normalized and subjected to comparison using various similarity methods. Cross-multiplication of the intensities is suggested as a measure of vectorial comparison of the orientations. By plotting the directional intensities into a polar coordinate system, rose diagrams are prepared for visual comparison. Optically derived parameters are independent of scale and other restrictive and limiting requirements as demanded in techniques of map analyses based on numerically derived parameters. The technique can be used in analyzing other pictorial data including aerial photographs, rock-fabric diagrams, and thin sections.     

Qualitative analysis and mapping of heavy metals in an abandoned Au–Ag mine area using NIR spectroscopy

Reflectance spectroscopy covering the visible and near-infrared ranges (400–2,400 nm) is known as a rapid and nondestructive method in the characterization and quantitative analysis of many components of interest. In this study, the potential use of spectral absorption feature parameters (SAFPs) in the range of 400–2,400 nm was investigated in terms of the prediction of heavy metals and mapping of their distribution. Parameters such as absorption depth, area, and peak ratio were derived from variations in spectral absorption shape associated with concentrations of heavy metals. Heavy metals were quantified from SAFPs using stepwise multiple linear regression (SMLR) and enter multiple linear regression (EMLR). The EMLR model showed qualitative prediction performance for As and Cu, with R ² values of 0.60 and 0.81, respectively. A contour map of As and Cu concentrations based on EMLR-derived values showed similar spatial patterns to a map based on measured values.     

利用MFC和Surfer实现方位加权多重二次曲面插值

受众多因素的影响,我们采集到的地球物理数据是离散的,这也限制了获得更多的地下信息。为了便于后期的解释工作,数据的补插网格化就至关重要。数据网格化是将空间上不均匀分布的数据,按一定方法归算成规则网格节点的代表值。这里依据方位加权二次曲面插值算法,利用MFC对话框界面与Surfer的混合编程,读取实测数据信息后,在可视化界面实现网格化处理过程。最后调用Surfer生成区域等值线图,与其内部插值方法绘制的等值线图进行比较。一方面验证了方位加权二次曲面插值算法的可适性,另一方面通过人机交互的方式简洁快速实现了庞大数据的批处理,便于用户使用。     

A three dimensional model of muckpile formation and grade boundary movement in open pit blasting

Summary Formulation and case studies of a three dimensional kinematic model are presented. Thein situ overburden geometry can be simulated accurately and various initiation patterns of blasts can be modelled. The overburden geometry, hole patterns and explosive distribution are all explicit model inputs. Because the effect of explosive properties, rock mass condition and inter-row delay are very difficult to measure in terms of blast performance, these are represented in the model by control parameters which are left for calibration using field data. The output of the model is a three dimensional muckpile shape of any cross section and a contour map of grade distribution within the muckpile. Two case studies are presented which have shown that the model is a valuable tool for optimizing production blasting as well as for controlling grade dilution during blasting.     

提高航测资料精度和图件质量的数学方法

虚拟切割线调平法是一种提高航测资料精度和图件质量的新的数据处理方法。该方法以误差理论为基础，根据场的分布理论，利用多项式数据拟合对测量数据进行分析、处理，以便消除迭加在测量值中的系统误差，从而达到消去因误差引起的相邻测线间场的水平的不一致以及出现在等值图上的波纹现象的目的。该方法已成功地应用于某测区的高精度构造航磁资料的处理。     

高精度重力资料在胜利油区油气藏探测中的应用

摘要：应用改进的重力归一化总梯度法（ＧＨ法）对胜利油田ＤＢ区的高精度重力测量资料进行了处理。计算了ＧＨ值在地下的三维分布。某一深度ＧＨ平面等值线图中的闭合极小值（ＧＨ低）反映了低密度体的存在及其水平位置,而不同深度等值线图中ＧＨ低的数目的变化可以近似表示低密度体集中的深度范围。ＧＨ平面等值线图还可以为选择ＧＨ铅垂断面图的方向提供依据。ＧＨ铅垂断面等值线图中的闭合极小值更清楚地显示出低密度体的形态及其近似深度。计算出的ＧＨ值的三维分布与钻井资料的比较表明,ＧＨ的闭合极小值与已知油气藏在位置上有较明显的相关关系。     

应用航磁数据分维计算推断火成岩的分布

计算巴彦浩特盆地航磁异常的分维数, 对计算出的分维数绘制等值线图, 并根据分形特征对该地区的火成岩进行划分, 得到了以往直接对航磁异常图进行推断解释所不能得到的良好地质效果。最后讨论如何选取最佳窗口和最佳网格来计算分维数, 并对此提出了2个经验。     

Surfer 网格化与白化处理在数据扩边中的应用--以1∶5万水系沉积物测量成图为例

在1∶5万水系沉积物测量数据成图过程中,为最大程度地保留原始数据信息,通常采用 MapGIS 软件的三角剖分功能绘制平面等值线图。由于布点原因,图幅边部未能有效控制,往往造成图面完整性较差。通过 Surfer 软件的离散数据网格化,对非均匀分布的1∶5万水系沉积物测量原始成图数据进行插值,并利用其白化功能,对插值数据进行扩边处理,减少离散数据网格化的外推区域。利用 MapGIS 软件中三角剖分对扩边后的数据和原始数据制作地球化学图件,解决了三角剖分绘制平面等值线图不能完整充填图幅的问题,保证了地球化学图件的原始性、真实性与完整性。     

Regional soil erosion risk mapping using RUSLE,GIS, and remote sensing: a case study in Miyun Watershed,North China

This paper applied the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), remote-sensing technique, and geographic information system (GIS) to map the soil erosion risk in Miyun Watershed, North China. The soil erosion parameters were evaluated in different ways: the R factor map was developed from the rainfall data, the K factor map was obtained from the soil map, the C factor map was generated based on a back propagation (BP) neural network method of Landsat ETM+ data with a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.929 to the field collected data, and a digital elevation model (DEM) with a spatial resolution of 30 m was derived from topographical map at the scale of 1:50,000 to develop the LS factor map. P factor map was assumed as 1 for the watershed because only a very small area has conservation practices. By integrating the six factor maps in GIS through pixel-based computing, the spatial distribution of soil loss in the upper watershed of Miyun reservoir was obtained by the RUSLE model. The results showed that the annual average soil loss for the upper watershed of Miyun reservoir was 9.86 t ha⁻¹ ya⁻¹ in 2005, and the area of 47.5 km² (0.3%) experiences extremely severe erosion risk, which needs suitable conservation measures to be adopted on a priority basis. The spatial distribution of erosion risk classes was 66.88% very low, 21.90% low, 6.19% moderate, 2.90% severe, and 1.84% very severe. Among all counties and cities in the study area, Huairou County is in the extremely severe level of soil erosion risk, about 39.6% of land suffer from soil erosion, while Guyuan County in the very low level of soil erosion risk suffered from 17.79% of soil erosion in 2005. Therefore, the areas which are in the extremely severe level of soil erosion risk need immediate attention from soil conservation point of view.     

Evaluation of Interpolation Accuracy of Neural Kriging with Application to Temperature-Distribution Analysis

An interpolation method based on a multilayer neural network (MNN), has been examined and tested for the data of irregular sample locations. The main advantage of MNN is in that it can deal with geoscience data with nonlinear behavior and extract characteristics from complex and noisy images. The training of MNN is used to modify connection weights between nodes located in different layers by a simulated annealing algorithm (one of the optimization algorithms of the network). In this process, three types of errors are considered: differences in values, semivariograms, and gradients between sample data and outputs from the trained network. The training is continued until the summation of these errors converges to an acceptably small value. Because the MNN trained by this learning criterion can estimate a value at an arbitrary location, this method is a form of kriging and termed Neural Kriging (NK). In order to evaluate the effectiveness of NK, a problem on restoration ability of a defined reference surface from randomly chosen discrete data was prepared. Two types of surfaces, whose semivariograms are expressed by isotropic spherical and geometric anisotropic gaussian models, were examined in this problem. Though the interpolation accuracy depended on the arrangement pattern of the sample locations for the same number of data, the interpolation errors of NK were shown to be smaller than both those of ordinary MNN and ordinal kriging. NK can also produce a contour map in consideration of gradient constraints. Furthermore, NK was applied to distribution analysis of subsurface temperatures using geothermal investigation loggings of the Hohi area in southwest Japan. In spite of the restricted quantity of sample data, the interpolation results revealed high temperature zones and convection patterns of hydrothermal fluids. NK is regarded as an interpolation method with high accuracy that can be used for regionalized variables with any structure of spatial correlation.     

编制盆地复原古构造图的若干问题的讨论

为了描述盆地三维构造的演化过程,通常需要编制不同地质时期的古构造等构造线图。编制古构造等高线图是一个复杂的研究过程,可能遇到许多概念性和技术性问题,但是所有问题都必须在地质平衡概念约束下寻求解决途径。本文讨论了按照地质平衡概念编制古构造等高线图的基本原则和可能的技术方案,包括研究构造变形模式、复原剥失厚度及其分布、复原断层位移、去压实校正等。运用地质平衡概念将较浅地层界面的构造等高线图复原到代表特定地质时期地形面的原始状态,相应地将较深地层界面的构造等高线图复原得的古构造等高线图。运用地质平衡概念编制的古构造等高线图比传统的只用地层残余厚度编制的古构造等高线图能更合理地反映地质时期的盆地古构造三维几何特征。     

Scaling of fault displacements from the Badajoz-Córdoba shear zone, SW spain

Faulting occurs over a large range of scale, parts of which are sampled by various techniques (e.g., microscopy, outcrop measurement, mapping, seismic reflection and other forms of remote sensing). Use of a single technique to measure displacement or strain will not sample faults at all scales and hence will give a biased estimate. In order to assess this bias, a knowledge of the distribution over all scales is needed.

Many samples of fault displacement appear to follow a power-law distribution, with departures which can be attributed to sampling effects. The number of faults with a displacement u is given by N(u) = Cu^−D. The power-law distribution of displacement is consistent with similar distributions of other fault parameters and earthquake magnitudes. When sampling along a line (e.g., a bedding trace on a map or section), a self-similar fault population would have D = 1, whereas self-affine geometries yield D≠ 1. Displacement and extension are dominated by small faults when D > 1 and by large faults when D < 1. When sampling over areas or volumes these critical values are 2 and 3, respectively.

A set of strike-slip faults from the Badajoz-Córdoba Shear Zone, Spain, were sampled at two different scales using 1:50000 maps and outcrop measurements. Displacement ranges over 6 orders of magnitude. These and other fault populations typically have D ranging from 0.6 to 1.5.

The power-law relationship may be integrated to yield estimates of the displacement (or extension) for faults which lie beyond the resolution of the sampling system. For example, a knowledge of D allows the extension measured on a map or seismic section to be “corrected” for faults whose displacement is below the resolution of the survey. Based on an overall estimate of D = 0.9 for the Badajoz-Córdoba data, only some 40% of the extension would be recorded by map-scale faults. A corrected extension of 41% along the shear zone is estimated; which if typical for the entire 300 km zone represents some 87 km of along-strike extension. Thus, work suggests that significant displacement occurs on faults which are too small to be interpreted from conventional seismic profiles and geological maps.     

Designing of the perpendicular drought index

In this paper, a simple, effective drought monitoring method is developed using two dimensional spectral space obtained from reflectance of near-infrared (NIR) and Red wavelengths. First, NIR–Red reflectance space is established using atmospheric and geometric corrected ETM+ data, which is manifested by a triangle shape and in which different surface targets possess certain spatial distribution rules. Second, perpendicular drought index (PDI) is developed on the basis of spatial characteristics of moisture distribution in NIR–Red space, as well as the relationships between PDI and soil moisture is examined. Validation work includes: comparison of PDI with in-situ drought index obtained from field measured data in the study area which includes bulk soil moisture content at different soil depths, field moisture capacity and wilting coefficient, etc.; and comparison of PDI with other recognized drought monitoring methods such as LST/NDVI and vegetation temperature condition index (VTCI). It is evident from the results that graph of PDI of field measured plots demonstrates very similar trends with ground truth drought data, LST/NDVI and VTCI. PDI is highly correlated with in-situ drought values calculated from 0 to 20 cm mean soil moisture with correlation coefficients of R ² = 0.49 (r = 0.75). This paper concludes that PDI has a potential in remote estimation of drought phenomenon as a simple, effective drought monitoring index.     

Porphyroblast rotation during crenulation cleavage development: an example from the aureole of the Mooselookmeguntic pluton, Maine, USA

In the low‐pressure, high‐temperature metamorphic rocks of western Maine, USA, staurolite porphyroblasts grew at c. 400 Ma, very late during the regional orogenesis. These porphyroblasts, which preserve straight inclusion trails with small thin‐section‐scale variation in pitch, were subsequently involved in the strain and metamorphic aureole of the c. 370 Ma Mooselookmeguntic pluton. The aureole shows a progressive fabric intensity gradient from effectively zero emplacement‐related deformation at the outer edge of the aureole ～2900 m (map distance) from the pluton margin to the development of a pervasive emplacement‐related foliation adjacent to the pluton. The development of this pervasive foliation spanned all stages of crenulation cleavage development, which are preserved at different distances from the pluton. The spread of inclusion‐trail pitches in the staurolite porphyroblasts, as measured in two‐dimensional (2‐D) thin sections, increases nonlinearly from ～16° to 75° with increasing strain in the aureole. These data provide clear evidence for rotation of the staurolite porphyroblasts relative to one another and to the developing crenulation cleavage. The data spread is qualitatively modelled for both pure and simple shear, and both solutions match the data reasonably well. The spread of inclusion‐trail orientations (40–75°) in the moderately to highly strained rocks is similar to the spread reported in several previous studies. We consider it likely that the sample‐scale spread in these previous studies is also the result of porphyroblast rotation relative to one another. However, the average inclusion‐trail orientation for a single sample may, in at least some instances, reflect the original orientation of the overgrown foliation.     

Scoresum — A technique for displaying and evaluating multi-element geochemical information, with examples of its use in regional mineral assessment programs

A technique called SCORESUM was developed to display a maximum of multi-element geochemical information on a minimum number of maps for mineral assessment purposes. The technique can be done manually for a small analytical data set or can be done with a computer for a large data set. SCORESUM can be used with highly censored data and can also weight samples so as to minimize the chemical differences of diverse lithologies in different parts of a given study area.The full range of reported analyses for each element of interest in a data set is divided into four categories. Anomaly scores — values of O (background), 1 (weakly anomalous), 2 (moderately anomalous), and 3 (strongly anomalous) — are substituted for all of the analyses falling into each of the four categories. A group of elements based on known or suspected association in altered or mineralized areas is selected for study and the anomaly scores for these elements are summed for each sample site and then plotted on a map. Some of the results of geochemical studies conducted for mineral assessments in two areas are briefly described. The first area, the Mokelumne Wilderness and vicinity, is a relatively small and geologically simple one. The second, the Walker Lake 1° × 2° quadrangle, is a large area that has extremely complex geology and that contains a number of different mineral deposit environments. These two studies provide examples of how the SCORESUM technique has been used (1) to enhance relatively small but anomalous areas and (2) to delineate and rank areas containing geochemical signatures for specific suites of elements related to certain types of alteration or mineralization.     

Integrating Large-Scale Soft Data by Simulated Annealing and Probability Constraints

Interpretation of geophysical data or other indirect measurements provides large-scale soft secondary data for modeling hard primary data variables. Calibration allows such soft data to be expressed as prior probability distributions of nonlinear block averages of the primary variable; poorer quality soft data leads to prior distributions with large variance, better quality soft data leads to prior distributions with low variance. Another important feature of most soft data is that the quality is spatially variable; soft data may be very good in some areas while poorer in other areas. The main aim of this paper is to propose a new method of integrating such soft data, which is large-scale and has locally variable precision. The technique of simulated annealing is used to construct stochastic realizations that reflect the uncertainty in the soft data. This is done by constraining the cumulative probability values of the block average values to follow a specified distribution. These probability values are determined by the local soft prior distribution and a nonlinear average of the small-scale simulated values within the block, which are all known. For each realization to accurately capture the information contained in the soft data distributions, we show that the probability values should be uniformly distributed between 0 and 1. An objective function is then proposed for a simulated annealing based approach to enforce this uniform probability constraint. The theoretical justification of this approach is discussed, implementation details are considered, and an example is presented.     

Intrinsic random function of order<Emphasis Type="Italic"> k</Emphasis> kriging of electrical resistivity data for estimating the extent of saltwater intrusion in a coastal aquifer system

A saltwater intrusion study using electrical resistivity distribution was conducted in a coastal aquifer system in the southeastern part of Busan, Korea. This aquifer system is divided into four layers according to the hydrogeologic characteristics, and the horizontal extent of intruded saltwater is determined at each layer through the geostatistical interpretation of electrical resistivity data. Intrinsic random function of order k (IRF-k) kriging is performed with covariance models to produce the plane of spatial mean resistivities. The kriged estimates are evaluated by cross validation, and they showed a good agreement with the true values. The statistics of cross validation represented low errors for the estimates. In the resistivity contour maps more than 5 m below the surface, a dominant direction of saltwater intrusion was observed beginning from the east side. These results led the authors to conclude that the application of geostatistical technique to electrical resistivity data is useful for assessing saltwater intrusion in a coastal aquifer system.     

Surface representations reproducing given digitized contour lines

In the practice of administrative or engineering geosciences, the problem of deriving a digital surface representation from a map displaying contour lines of the interesting quantity is quite often encountered. First, alpha-numerical data are retrieved from the map by digitizing these contour lines pointwise into polygons. However, common gridding algorithms are known to fail at adequately reproducing the input contour lines due to the inhomogeneous and anisotropic areal distribution of the sites of the data sampled from given contour lines. Therefore, we suggest a new algorithm; the basic elements of its first stage are a constrained Delaunay triangulation of the data sites honoring their natural neighborhood relationship—i.e., whether they belong to the same contour line or not, and linear interpolation according to this triangulation of the data domain. In a second stage, a Bezier-Bernstein or simplex B-spline representation is easily achieved if a C₁ or C₂ smooth representation is required. At this stage, also, discontinuities of the function or its first directional derivatives with known locations in the data domain may be represented, provided this additional information has been taken into account when the triangulation was performed. The algorithm is numerically stable and efficient, and allows external interaction by the user to introduce his/her additional knowledge of the phenomenon to be studied, which may not be explicitly inherent in the available data.     

水文要素等值线图的自动绘制方法

降雨量、地下水位等水文要素常常需要用等值线图来直观地反应。介绍了反距离加权插值算法和三角网格的等值线追踪方法，并用面向对象的C 编程语言封装为TContour类。应用结果表明，TContour类的插值和追踪方法快速高效，算法描述简洁且易于维护升级，可广泛应用于水文要素等值线图的计算机自动绘制，同时大大方便了软件系统的系统集成。     

Interpretation of heterogeneity effects in synchrotron X-ray fluorescence microprobe data

Heterogeneity effects often limit the accuracy of synchrotron X-ray fluorescence microprobe elemental analysis data to ± 30%. The difference in matrix mass absorption at Kα and Kβ fluorescence energies of a particular element can be exploited to yield information on the average depth-position of the element or account for heterogeneity effects. Using this technique, the heterogeneous distribution of Cu in a simple layered sample could be resolved to a 2 × 2 × 10 (x, y, z, where z is the depth coordinate) micrometer scale; a depth-resolution limit was determined for the first transition metal series and several other elements in calcite and iron oxide matrices. For complex heterogeneous systems, determination of average element depth may be computationally limited but the influence of heterogeneity on fluorescence data may still be assessed. We used this method to compare solid-state diffusion with sample heterogeneity across the Ni-serpentine/calcite boundary of a rock from Panoche Creek, California. We previously reported that Ni fluorescence data may indicate solid state diffusion; in fact, sample heterogeneity in the depth dimension can also explain the Ni fluorescence data. Depth heterogeneity in samples can lead to misinterpretation of synchrotron X-ray microprobe results unless care is taken to account for the influence of heterogeneity on fluorescence data.