Ensemble simulation of land evapotranspiration in China based on a multi-forcing and multi-model approach

In order to reduce the uncertainty of offline land surface model(LSM) simulations of land evapotranspiration(ET), we used ensemble simulations based on three meteorological forcing datasets [Princeton, ITPCAS(Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences), Qian] and four LSMs(BATS, VIC, CLM3.0 and CLM3.5), to explore the trends and spatiotemporal characteristics of ET, as well as the spatiotemporal pattern of ET in response to climate factors over mainland China during 1982–2007. The results showed that various simulations of each member and their arithmetic mean(Ens Mean) could capture the spatial distribution and seasonal pattern of ET sufficiently well, where they exhibited more significant spatial and seasonal variation in the ET compared with observation-based ET estimates(Obs MTE). For the mean annual ET, we found that the BATS forced by Princeton forcing overestimated the annual mean ET compared with Obs MTE for most of the basins in China, whereas the VIC forced by Princeton forcing showed underestimations. By contrast, the Ens Mean was closer to Obs MTE, although the results were underestimated over Southeast China. Furthermore, both the Obs MTE and Ens Mean exhibited a significant increasing trend during 1982–98; whereas after 1998, when the last big EI Ni ?no event occurred, the Ens Mean tended to decrease significantly between 1999 and 2007, although the change was not significant for Obs MTE. Changes in air temperature and shortwave radiation played key roles in the long-term variation in ET over the humid area of China, but precipitation mainly controlled the long-term variation in ET in arid and semi-arid areas of China.     

甘肃民勤小型与E-601型蒸发皿蒸发量折算系数分析

利用民勤国家基准气候站1992~2001年5~9月各月小型与E-601型2种蒸发皿蒸发量的同步对比观测资料,通过对比分析、相关分析、离差分析方法以及气候估算值分析得出:(1)各月小型与E-601型2种蒸发的折算系数在0.504~0.601之间,平均折算系数为0.574;各年2种蒸发的折算系数在0.529~0.608之间,平均折算系数为0.574;(2)2种蒸发量5~9月的月、年平均折算系数相同,2种月蒸发量的平均相关系数为0.952,相关性很好,但2种蒸发的年平均相关系数为0.330,相关性很不理想,因此利用按月计算的折算系数来换算2种蒸发量更为合理;(3)小型蒸发量的离差系数大于E-601型蒸发量,小型蒸发量的离散程度比E-601型蒸发量大。由于E-601型蒸发量只有5~9月有观测资料,在考虑民勤站小型蒸发与E-601型蒸发资料互相换算时,首先考虑将E-601型蒸发量换算为小型蒸发量来利用,为有效利用民勤长序列小型蒸发量资料做了很好的衔接。     

近50a海口市降水量与蒸发量变化

利用1961～2007年海南省琼山站的降水量和20cm口径小型蒸发皿资料,采用累积距平曲线和线性倾向估计方法,对海口市降水量、蒸发量的变化及其对干燥度的影响进行了分析.结果表明:海口市年、季降水量的年际变化明显,年、季蒸发量的年代际变化明显;近50a海口市年、季降水量没有显著的线性变化趋势,但年、春、秋、冬季的蒸发量均有显著的线性减少趋势;受此影响,近50a海口市气候总体趋于更加湿润,但2003～2007年由于降水量减少,蒸发量增大,气候处于相对干燥时期.     

Estimating Global Distribution of Evapotranspiration and Water Balance Using Complementary Methods

ABSTRACT

The authors propose a modified complementary method to estimate regional evapotranspiration (ET) under different climatic and physical conditions using only meteorological data. The purpose of this study is to investigate the applicability of the modified complementary method for estimating global ET distribution and corresponding water balance. Gridded data from the Climate Research Unit, University of East Anglia, with 30 min spatial resolution and monthly time steps are used. Using the Thornthwaite water budget, monthly maps of global water surplus (precipitation minus ET) are produced. The results show good agreement with many previous studies. The average annual precipitation, ET, and water surplus are 690, 434, and 256?mm, respectively. The results show that the modified model can predict regional ET using meteorological data and can be used to assess global water resources. Consequently, the proposed method has strong potential for projecting water resource balance under future climate change.     

郑州市降水特征分析与水资源问题初探

分析1971-2004年郑州市降水资料发现,郑州市降水量年际变化大,季节分配极不均匀。利用同期月降水量和月平均气温资料,依据陆面实际蒸发经验公式,计算了陆面蒸发量、蒸发系数和可利用降水系数,结果表明,郑州水资源的变化特征与降水量变化特征基本相似,且春季是郑州最易出现干旱的季节。通过分析1991-2000年郑州地表、地下水资源资料,得出郑州缺水状况更加严重的结论,并提出了应对和缓解水资源缺乏的对策。     

我国自动与人工蒸发量观测资料的对比分析

截止到2005年,全国共有130个台站进行蒸发量自动与人工业务观测。该文利用2005年平行观测月数据,对资料的差异和相关性以及比对系数和影响因子进行了讨论,结果表明:月蒸发量差值不满足正态分布,近80%的数据为自动观测值大于人工观测值;在人工观测值较小时,对应的自动与人工相对差值较大,随着人工观测值的增加,差值有减小趋势;自动与人工观测数据之间存在很好的线性相关关系,相关系数为0.98,通过了0.01的显著性检验;比对系数年平均值在1.0~1.2之间,两大高值中心分别位于广西都安和湖南南县;比对系数月平均值的变化近似于二次型拟合曲线,1月最大,6,7月最小;在定性讨论特征站比对系数影响因子的基础上,进一步查明了影响月比对系数的气象因子有月平均相对湿度和月平均风速。     

小型与E-601型蒸发皿蒸发量对比分析及其折算系数——以江苏省为例

本文基于江苏省16个台站小型和E-601型蒸发皿同步对比观测资料,以南京站为例,采用比值法和多元线性回归法对长时间序列小型蒸发皿蒸发量进行估算及效果检验,结果表明:通过比值法计算得到的月折算系数介于0.490～0.609之间,年折算系数介于0.476～0.621之间,二者平均折算系数相同,均为0.537,两种蒸发皿月蒸发量相关系数高达0.952 4,年蒸发量相关系数仅0.496 2,表明在利用比值法进行计算时,月折算系数较为合理,具有较好适用性;基于各气象因子和E-601型蒸发量建立的各月小型蒸发皿蒸发量多元线性回归方程,决定系数介于0.809～0.940,效果较理想;比值法和多元线性回归法模拟检验中,比值法年平均误差为7.9%,多元线性回归法年平均误差仅2.5%,比值法预测结果决定系数为0.861 9,回归模型决定系数高达0.953 4,可见回归模型效果更为理想。总结研究结果后,本文详细给出江苏省各台站小型及E-601型蒸发皿折算系数,为有效完整利用江苏省各台站长时间序列小型蒸发皿资料提供合理依据。     

Regional estimates of evapotranspiration over Northern China using a remote-sensing-based triangle interpolation method

Regional estimates of evapotranspiration (ET) are critical for a wide range of applications. Satellite remote sensing is a promising tool for obtaining reasonable ET spatial distribution data. However, there are at least two major problems that exist in the regional estimation of ET from remote sensing data. One is the conflicting requirements of simple data over a wide region, and accuracy of those data. The second is the lack of regional ET products that cover the entire region of northern China. In this study, we first retrieved the evaporative fraction (EF) by interpolating from the difference of day/night land surface temperature ( T ) and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) triangular-shaped scatter space. Then, ET was generated from EF and land surface meteorological data. The estimated eight-day EF and ET results were validated with 14 eddy covariance (EC) flux measurements in the growing season (July-September) for the year2008 over the study area. The estimated values agreed well with flux tower measurements, and this agreement was highly statistically significant for both EF and ET (p <0.01), with the correlation coefficient for EF (R2 =0.64) being relatively higher than for ET (R2 =0.57). Validation with EC-measured ET showed the mean RMSE and bias were 0.78 mm d-1 (22.03 W m-2 ) and 0.31 mm d-1 (8.86 W m-2 ), respectively. The ET over the study area increased along a clear longitudinal gradient, which was probably controlled by the gradient of precipitation, green vegetation fractions, and the intensity of human activities. The satellite-based estimates adequately captured the spatial and seasonal structure of ET. Overall, our results demonstrate the potential of this simple but practical method for monitoring ET over regions with heterogeneous surface areas.     

1981—2010年西藏怒江流域潜在蒸发量的时空变化

利用1981—2010年怒江流域9个站月平均最高气温、最低气温、降水量、风速、相对湿度、日照时数等资料,应用Penman-Monteith模型,采用气候倾向率、R/S等方法分析了潜在蒸发量变化的趋势性和持续性,并探讨了影响潜在蒸发量的气象因子。结果表明：近30年怒江流域四季潜在蒸发量趋于减少,年潜在蒸发量以18.4 mm?(10a)-1的速率显著减少。夏、秋、冬季和年潜在蒸发量具有持续性,未来将持续减少,尤其是冬季。在年代际尺度上,四季潜在蒸发量1980年代为正距平,1990和2000年代均为负距平。风速减小是四季潜在蒸发量减少的主要因素,不过春季潜在蒸发量的减少与降水量的显著增加也有关,且夏季气温日较差的显著变小对潜在蒸发量减少的作用不可忽视。     

Moisture recycling and the maximum of precipitation in spring in the Iberian Peninsula

In the semiarid interior of the Iberian Peninsula, the topographic insulation from the surrounding seas promotes the role of internal sources of moisture and water recycling in the rainfall regime. In inland Iberia, the annual cycle of precipitation often has a distinctive peak in the springtime, when evapotranspiration (ET) is the highest, in contrast to the coastal areas, where it is more closely related to the external moisture availability and synoptic forcing, with a maximum in winter-autumn and a pronounced minimum in the summer. In this work we investigate the role of land surface water fluxes in the intensification of the hydrological cycle in the Iberian spring. We used data from 5 km resolution WRF-ARW model simulations over the Iberian Peninsula for eleven months of May (2000–2010). To bring out the effect of ET fluxes, we conducted experiments where ET water over land was removed from the system. Our findings indicate that the impact of ET on precipitation is on average very large (37 % increase). The impact is particularly strong in the interior north and northeast areas where the observed annual rainfall cycle has a peak in May, suggesting that the role of surface water fluxes is very important there. To investigate whether this role is as a water source or to amplify precipitation dynamics, we computed the recycling ratio analytically from the model data. In addition, we developed a procedure to quantify the amplification impact by comparing the recycling ratio and the relative change in precipitation between control and experiments with ET removed. Results show that the role of surface water fluxes on precipitation depends on large-scale forcing and moisture advection. When the synoptic forcing and moisture advection are strong, such as in fronts associated to Atlantic storms, the impact of ET fluxes is small. When there is potential for convection, as is commonly the case of late spring in the Iberian Peninsula, ET fluxes have a significant impact. Surface moisture fluxes moisten the boundary layer and increase moist static energy, strengthening convective processes, and their role goes from being a primary water source for precipitation (recycling) to have mostly an amplification effect as external moisture availability increases. Our findings show that for the eleven simulated May cases over the Iberian Peninsula, the role of ET fluxes in activating recycling is important and explains 27–58 % of their total impact on precipitation, depending on the method used to calculate the recycling ratio. This indicates that the complementary effect of ET on amplifying rainfall from external sources of moisture is comparable in magnitude to the recycling mechanism and important as well.     

Characterizing the distribution of observed precipitation and runoff over the continental United States

This paper describes the development of a comprehensive geographic database of historical precipitation and runoff measurements for the conterminous U.S. The database is used in a spatial analysis to characterize large scale precipitation and runoff patterns and to assess the utility and limitations of using historical hydro-meteorological data for providing spatially distributed precipitation estimates at regional and continental scales. Long-term annual average precipitation (P) and runoff (Q) surfaces (geographically referenced, digital representations of a continuous spatial distribution) generated from interpolation of point measurements are used in a distributed water balance calculation to check the reliability of precipitation estimates. The resulting input-output values (P- Q) illustrate the deficiency (sparse distribution and low elevation bias) of historical precipitation measurements in the mountainous western U.S. where snowmelt is an important component of the annual runoff. The incorporation of high elevation snow measurements into the precipitation record significantly improves the water balance estimates in some areas and enhances the utility of historical data for providing spatially distributed precipitation estimates in topographically diverse regions. Regions where the use of historical precipitation data may be most limited for precipitation estimation are identified and alternatives to the use of interpolated historical data for precipitation estimation across large heterogenous regions are suggested. The research establishes a database for continental scale studies and provides direction for the successful development of spatially distributed regional scale water balance models.     

基于机器学习技术的蒸发皿蒸发量估算模型

为了弥补国家级气象观测站小型蒸发皿停止观测后蒸发量观测资料的空缺,建立了陕北、关中和陕南3个区域数据集以及榆林、泾河和汉中3个单站数据集,通过建立和优化KNN、MLP模型及其参数,分别建立蒸发量区域估算模型、单站估算模型并对其进行检验.结果 表明:①进行区域蒸发量估算时,KNN模型表现出良好的泛化性能,均方误差、总相对...     

Evaluation of the WRF Model with Different Land Surface Schemes： A Drought Event Simulation in Southwest China during 2009–10

The authors examined the performance of version 3.4.1 of the Weather Research and Forecasting Model（WRF） with various land surface schemes in simulating a severe drought event in Southwest China. Five numerical experiments were completed using the Noah land surface scheme, the Pleim-Xiu land surface scheme, the Noah-MP land surface schemes, the Noah- MP scheme with dynamic vegetation, and the Noah-MP scheme with dynamic vegetation and groundwater processes. In general, all the simulations reasonably reproduced the spatial and temporal variations in precipitation, but significant bias was also found, especially for the spatial pattern of simulated precipitation. The WRF simulations with the Noah-MP series land surface schemes performed slightly better than the WRF simulation with the Noah and Pleim-Xiu land surface schemes in reproducing the severe drought events in Southwest China. The leaf area index（LAI） simulated by the different land surface schemes showed significant deviations in Southwest China. The Pleim-Xiu scheme overestimated the value of LAI by a factor of two. The Noah-MP scheme with dynamical vegetation overestimated the magnitude of the annual cycle of the LAI, although the annual mean LAI was close to observations. The simulated LAI showed a long-term lower value from autumn 2009 to spring 2010 relative to normal years. This indicates that the LAI is a potential indictor to monitor drought events.     

和田市近40年蒸发量的变化特征

利用和田市气象站1961-2000年20cm口径蒸发量资料，对蒸发量的年、季、月变化趋势、年代际变化特征、突变和周期等气候变化作了较全面分析。结果表明：40年来各季、月蒸发量呈现不同程度的上升趋势，年蒸发量以48．52mm／10a的倾向率增多，偏多趋势主要表现在春季、秋季，其中5月份蒸发量偏多趋势最明显。年蒸发量在20世纪60年代为相对偏少期，80年代为相对偏多期。采用累积距平曲线和标准Morlet小波方法对年总蒸发量进行突变检验和周期分析表明，年蒸发量在1978年发生一次突变，蒸发量变化具有4～6年、11年和22年左右的年周期变化。     

近百年北半球陆面降水资料的插补及初步分析

采用ＥＯＦｓ展开方法插补延长了一个北半球陆面月降水资料,并讨论了该资料插补工作的合理性。利用该资料初步分析了近百年北半球陆面降水的基本特点。     

利用区域气候模式RIEMS产品分析日蒸散量及其影响

利用区域气候模式RIEMS输出的各种气象参数,采用了BEF等4种不同方法计算了沂沭河上游流域的潜在蒸散量,并与该流域6个气象站实测蒸发数据计算的陆面潜在蒸散量进行了比较。结果表明,根据平均偏差、平均绝对偏差、均方根差和相关系数指标的综合判断,该4种方法的估测精度从高到低依次为双线性曲面回归经验函数法(BEF)、Hargreaves-Samani(Harg)法、Pristley-Tayler(P-T)法和Penman-Monteith(P-M)法。在时间序列上,4种方法计算的逐日蒸散量与观测值呈相同的变化趋势,但计算值在蒸散发最强、最弱和降水最多、气温最高的7-9月有较大差异。BEF法估测的精度最高,与观测值最接近,Harg法、P-M法和P-T法都有明显的偏高现象。BEF法只需要较少的参数就能得到较高的估测精度,因此可作为利用区域气候模式RIEMS产品计算沂沭河流域蒸散量的首选方法,进而为RIEMS模式中耦合的陆面水文过程模型TOPX提供满足精度要求的日蒸散量驱动参数。     

Estimation of Indian summer monsoon rainfall using Kalpana-1 VHRR data and its validation using rain gauge and GPCP data

In the present study, an attempt has been made to estimate and validate the daily and monthly rainfall during the Indian summer monsoon seasons of 2008 and 2009 using INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) Multispectral Rainfall Algorithm (IMSRA) technique utilizing Kalpana-1 very high resolution radiometer (VHRR) measurements. In contrary to infrared (IR), microwave (MW) rain rates are based on measurements that sense precipitation in clouds and do not rely merely on cloud top temperature. Geostationary satellites provide broad coverage and frequent refresh measurements but microwave measurements are accurate but sparse. IMSRA technique is the combination of the infrared and microwave measurements which make use of the best features of both IR- and MW-based rainfall estimates. The development of this algorithm included two major steps: (a) classification of rain-bearing clouds using proper cloud classification scheme utilizing Kalpana-1 IR and water vapor (WV) brightness temperatures (Tb) and (b) collocation of Kalpana-1 IR brightness temperature with Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)-Precipitation Radar (PR) surface rain rate and establishment of a regression relation between them. In this paper, the capability of IMSRA as an operational algorithm has been tested for the two monsoon seasons 2008 and 2009. For this, IMSRA has been used to estimate daily and monthly rainfall and has been intercompared on daily and monthly scales with TRMM Multisatellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA)-3B42 V6 product and Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) rain product during these two monsoon years. The daily and monthly IMSRA rainfall has also been validated against ground-based observations from Automatic Weather Station (AWS) Rain Gauge and Buoy data. The algorithm proved to be in good correlation with AWS data over land up to 0.70 for daily rain estimates except orographic regions like North-East and South-West India and 0.72 for monthly rain estimates. The validation with Buoys gives the reasonable correlation of 0.49 for daily rain estimates and 0.66 for monthly rain estimates over Tropical Indian Ocean.     

An Observational Study on the Local Climate Effect of the Shangyi Wind Farm in Hebei Province

Zhangjiakou is an important wind power base in Hebei Province, China. The impact of its wind farms on the local climate is controversial. Based on long-term meteorological data from 1981 to 2018, we investigated the effects of the Shangyi Wind Farm (SWF) in Zhangjiakou on air temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, and precipitation using the anomaly or ratio method between the impacted weather station and the non-impacted background weather station. The influence of the SWF on land surface temperature (LST) and evapotranspiration (ET) using MODIS satellite data from 2003 to 2018 was also explored. The results showed that the SWF had an atmospheric warming effect at night especially in summer and autumn (up to 0.95°C). The daytime air temperature changes were marginal, and their signs were varying depending on the season. The annual mean wind speed decreased by 6％, mainly noted in spring and winter (up to 14％). The precipitation and relative humidity were not affected by the SWF. There was no increase in LST in the SWF perhaps due to the increased vegetation coverage unrelated to the wind farms, which canceled out the wind farm-induced land surface warming and also resulted in an increase in ET. The results showed that the impact of wind farms on the local climate was significant, while their impact on the regional climate was slight.     

1961—2010年黄河流域蒸发皿蒸发量变化及影响因子分析

利用黄河流域内61个气象站逐月观测资料,使用Mann-Kendall非参数检验方法对1961—2010年黄河流域小型蒸发皿蒸发量变化趋势进行了分析,并用SVD和多元回归方法检测影响蒸发量变化的因子。结果表明,黄河流域年蒸发皿蒸发量在1961—2010年显著下降,四季中夏季的下降趋势最显著,年和春、夏季蒸发量均在1979年发生突变。上、中、下游的年蒸发量变化率分别为-2.38 mm/a、-2.35 mm/a、-8.35 mm/a,下游下降幅度较大。空间变化分布上,年和春、夏季蒸发皿蒸发量均在黄河流域河源地区、河套地区西部及北部、河南北部有显著下降趋势,在河套地区东部呈显著上升趋势。利用SVD分析发现蒸发量的空间变化与不同因子作用有着显著关联,通过对不同区域内各影响因子的多元回归分析发现流域内蒸发量上升的地区主要是由气温上升所引起,而下降的地区则与风速减小有关。     

Spatial interpolation of monthly and annual rainfall in northeast of Iran

Precipitation maps are the key input to many hydrological models. In this paper different univariate (inverse distance weighing and ordinary kriging) and multivariate (linear regression, ordinary cokriging, simple kriging with varying local mean and kriging with an external drift) interpolation methods are used to map monthly and annual rainfall from sparse data measurements. The study area is Golestan Province, located in northeast of Iran. A digital elevation model is used as complementary information for multivariate approaches. The prediction performance of each method is evaluated through cross-validation and visual examination of the precipitation maps produced. Results indicate that geostatistical algorithms clearly outperform inverse distance weighting and linear regression. Among multivariate techniques, ordinary cokriging or kriging with an external drift yields the smallest error of prediction for months April to October (autumn and winter) for which the correlation between rainfall and elevation is greater than 0.54. For all other months and annual rainfall, ordinary kriging provides the most accurate estimates.