On the optically biaxial character and heterogeneity of anthracites

The results of the study of optical properties of 13 anthracites from different parts of the world are presented in this paper. Measurements of reflectance values were made on non-oriented vitrinite grains for a minimum of 300 points per sample. The reconstruction of Reflectance Indicating Surfaces (RIS) were made by Kilby's method [Kilby, W.E., 1988. Recognition of vitrinite with non-uniaxial negative reflectance characteristics. Int. J. Coal Geol. 9, 267–285; Kilby, W.E., 1991. Vitrinite reflectance measurement — some technique enhancements and relationships. Int. J. Coal Geol. 19, 201–218]. It was found that the use of Kilby's method for strongly anisotropic materials like anthracites did not give unambiguous results. Some improvement in Kilby's method, consisting of the division of the cumulative cross-plot into several elemental components, is suggested. Each elemental cross-plot corresponds to a textural class of anthracite, which is characterized by the values of RIS main axes R_MAX^(k), R_INT^(k) and R_MIN^(k) (k=1,2,…n; n — number of classes). The global texture of anthracite is characterized as a RIS with main axes calculated as the weighted means of , and for each class of this anthracite.The division of cumulative Kilby's cross-plot on elemental components makes possible the calculation of new coefficients H_t and H₁₀ characterizing the heterogeneity of the structure and texture of anthracites. The results of our study show that all anthracites have biaxial negative textures, but their heterogeneity varies in a wide range of H_t and H₁₀ coefficients depending upon the individual coal basin.     

Thermal internal boundary layer characteristics at a tropical coastal site as observed by a mini-SODAR under varying synoptic conditions

Atmospheric boundary layer observations are conducted at a coastal site during a transition phase from winter to summer season over the Indian peninsula. Thermal Internal Boundary Layer (TIBL) characteristics in presence of an off-shore and a weakly influenced on-shore synoptic wind are examined with the help of measurements carried out with a mini-SODAR (SOund Detection And Ranging), tethered balloon, and tower-based micrometeorological measurements. Influence of the changing synoptic scale conditions on turbulent characteristics of TIBL is discussed. Mini-SODAR data showed the development and decay of sea and land breeze. It is seen that the characteristics of TIBL over the coastal land after sea breeze onset are similar to that of a shallow convective boundary layer (CBL) commonly found over plain land. Inside the TIBL, a maximum wind speed was noted close to the surface due to the penetration of sea breeze. In the off-shore case, a distinct sea breeze circulation was observed unlike in the case of on-shore flow. In the presence of weak on-shore case, a ‘minor sea’ breeze is noted before the establishment of sea breeze and a reduction in the momentum fluxes gives rise to decrease in the turbulence intensity. Updraft in the sea breeze front was stronger during weak synoptic conditions. Influence of synoptic changes on the sea breeze-land breeze circulation such as onset, strength and duration of the sea-land breeze are also examined. This work was done while the first author was a visiting scientist at IGCAR, Kalpakkam, India.     

Effects of linear and exponential heterogeneity on the dynamic response of a moving load in an irregular isotropic half-space: a comparative study

Heterogeneity, being a trivial feature inside the earth or in a geostructure, makes a strong basis for its consideration in the study of geomechanics. Inclusion of the concept of heterogeneity along with irregularity in the medium brings a novelty to the existing literature related to the study of the moving load. The present study investigates the effects of linear and exponential heterogeneity on the dynamic response due to a normal load moving with constant velocity on a rough irregular heterogeneous isotropic half-space in a comparative approach. Expressions for both normal and shear stresses for either case of heterogeneity have been established in closed form. Substantial effects of the affecting parameters such as depth, irregularity factor, maximum depth of irregularity, frictional coefficient, linear heterogeneity parameter and exponential heterogeneity parameter on normal and shear stresses for both the cases of heterogeneity have been observed. Numerical computation has been carried out and the effects of said parameters have been meticulously examined by means of graphs. Moreover, different cases of heterogeneity and homogeneity along with various types of irregularity namely rectangular, parabolic and no irregularity are compared which serve as a focal theme of the study.     

喀斯特地区不同植被下小生境土壤矿物组成及有机碳含量空间异质性初步研究

通过对喀斯特地区乔木林、灌木林和草丛不同植被类型覆盖下的土面、石面、石缝、石沟、石洞、石槽和石坑7类小生境土壤样品分析测定,探讨了小生境土壤矿物组成及有机碳的空间异质性特征。结果表明:(1)不同植被类型下土壤矿物组成存在明显差异,即从草丛→灌木林→乔木林,小生境土壤中的石英、高岭石基本保持不变,但草丛土壤中的白云石矿物全部消失,灌木林、乔木林土壤中逐渐出现绿泥石;(2)随着植被正向演替,土壤有机碳含量显著增加,小生境土壤有机碳含量在不同植被类型条件下存在明显的异质性,表现为草丛>乔木林>灌木林。与此同时,以小生境土壤有机碳含量及变异系数为评价因子,分别对乔木林、灌木林及草丛中小生境有机碳进行聚类分析,结果显示,小生境微地貌特征是土壤有机碳含量及空间变异性的重要影响因子。对于土壤有机碳保护,草丛及灌木林区应以提高植被覆盖率为主;乔木林区则主要是保持现有良好的植被状况,减少人为干扰。      

大北油田萨尔图油层特低渗储层宏观非均质性研究

大北油田萨尔图油层属于特低渗透储层。从沉积微相的角度对萨尔图油层宏观非均质性研究表明,储层非均质性较强,而其非均质性主要受控于沉积环境、成岩作用及裂缝发育情况等因素。萨尔图油层在本区发育水下分流河道、席状砂、远砂坝和浊积扇(滑塌沉积)等4种储层微相,油层非均质性在各种沉积微相之间的过渡部位及浊积扇微相中较强;其次为席状砂微相和远砂坝微相,在水下分流河道中相对较弱。     

Wind tunnel experiments on the turbulent transmission over the near surface layer of different surfaces

To understand the generation and development mechanism of soil erosion, data of the wind profile from wind tunnel experiments were used, and the characteristics of the turbulent transmission with free stream velocity and the properties of the surfaces in arid and semi-arid regions were studied by the atmospheric aerodynamic method. The result showed that the turbulent momentum fluxes are proportional to the velocity and the roughness of the surfaces. In addition, they are closely related to the density of the roughness elements; the turbulent exchange coefficient over the near surface layer increases with height.     

细观非均匀性对脆性岩石材料宏观破坏形式的影响

岩石材料的宏观力学特征是材料内部细观力学特性的综合反映。对于脆性岩石材料,其内部的非均匀性对材料的宏观破坏形式有着重要的影响。应用演化细胞自动机方法（ECA）对岩石的非均匀性进行了初步的探讨。该方法以位移、力、应力和应变等矢量和张量作为系统的基本变量,定量计算了反映岩石破坏过程中应力集中以及应力重新分布的过程。在宏观上则认为脆性岩石材料是一种非均匀性材料,并假定脆性岩石材料的非均匀性符合Weibull分布,坡度参数m是Weibull分布中的反映分布非均匀程度的重要参数。通过对符合Weibull分布中不同坡度参数的脆性岩石材料进行数值模拟试验,发现由Weibull分布中的坡度参数表示的非均匀性是影响脆性岩石材料破坏方式的重要因素,材料的坡度参数越小,材料越不均匀,其破坏形式则越具有随机性;材料的坡度参数越大,材料越趋于均匀,其破坏形式越具有规则性,即趋于弹性材料的破坏形式,这与试验结果是吻合的。     

On the mechanics of contact between a flexible transducer diaphragm located at a rigid boundary and an elastic material

In this paper we examine the mechanics of contact between a flexible elastic diaphragm and an isotropic elastic halfspace region where contact is established through the application of a normal stress. It is shown that a convenient solution for the maximum displacement and maximum flexural moment in the flexible diaphragm can be obtained by employing a variational technique. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impact of mechanical heterogeneity on joint density in a welded ignimbrite

Joints are conduits for groundwater, hydrocarbons and hydrothermal fluids. Robust fluid flow models rely on accurate characterisation of joint networks, in particular joint density. It is generally assumed that the predominant factor controlling joint density in layered stratigraphy is the thickness of the mechanical layer where the joints occur. Mechanical heterogeneity within the layer is considered a lesser influence on joint formation. We analysed the frequency and distribution of joints within a single 12-m thick ignimbrite layer to identify the controls on joint geometry and distribution. The observed joint distribution is not related to the thickness of the ignimbrite layer. Rather, joint initiation, propagation and termination are controlled by the shape, spatial distribution and mechanical properties of fiamme, which are present within the ignimbrite. The observations and analysis presented here demonstrate that models of joint distribution, particularly in thicker layers, that do not fully account for mechanical heterogeneity are likely to underestimate joint density, the spatial variability of joint distribution and the complex joint geometries that result. Consequently, we recommend that characterisation of a layer’s compositional and material properties improves predictions of subsurface joint density in rock layers that are mechanically heterogeneous.     

Influence of boundary conditions,specimen geometry and material heterogeneity on model calibration from triaxial tests

The recent capability of measuring full‐field deformations using advanced imaging techniques provides the opportunity to improve the predictive ability of computational soil mechanics. This paper investigates the effects of imperfect initial specimen geometry, platen‐soil and apparatus compliance, and material heterogeneity on the constitutive model calibration process from triaxial tests with nonlubricated platens. The technique of 3D‐Digital Image Correlation (3D‐DIC) was used to measure, from digital images, full‐field displacements over sand specimen surfaces throughout triaxial compression tests, as well as actual specimen initial shape, and deformations associated with platen and apparatus compliance and bedding settlement. The difference between predicted and observed 3D specimen surface deformations served to quantify an objective function in the optimization algorithm. Four different three‐dimensional finite element models (FEMs), each allowing varying degrees of material variability in the solution of the inverse problem, were used to study the effect of material heterogeneity. Results of the parametric study revealed that properly representing the actual initial specimen geometry significantly improves the optimization efficiency, and that accounting for boundary compliance can be critical for the accurate recovery of the full‐field experimental displacements. Allowing for nonsymmetric material variability had the most significant impact on predicted behavior. A relatively high coefficient of variation in model parameters was found among a statistical ensemble of tests, underscoring the importance of conducting multiple tests for proper material characterization. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Influence of rigid boundary on the propagation of torsional surface wave in an inhomogeneous layer

Journal of Earth System Science - The present work illustrates a theoretical study on the effect of rigid boundary for the propagation of torsional surface wave in an inhomogeneous crustal layer...     

Influence of micrometeorological features on coastal boundary layer aerosol characteristics at the tropical station, Trivandrum

Characteristics of aerosols in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) obtained from a bistatic CW lidar at Trivandrum for the last one decade are used to investigate the role of ABL micro-meteorological processes in controlling the altitude distribution and size spectrum. The altitude structure of number density shows three distinct zones depending on the prevailing boundary layer feature; viz, the well-mixed region, entertainment region and upper mixing region. In the lower altitudes vertical mixing is very strong (the well-mixed region) the upper limit of which is defined as aerosol-mixing height, is closely associated with the low level inversion. The aerosol mixing height generally lies in the range 150 to 400 m showing a strong dependence on the vertical eddy mixing processes in ABL. Above this altitude, the number density decreases almost exponentially with increase in altitude with a scale height of 0.5–1.5 km. The aerosol mixing height is closely associated with the height of the Thermal Internal Boundary Layer (TIBL). Sea-spray aerosols generated as a result of the interaction of surface wind with sea surface forms an important component of mixing region aerosols at this location. This component shows a non-linear dependence on wind speed. On an average, depending on the season, the mixing region contributes about 10–30% of the columnar aerosol optical depth (AOD) at 0.5Μm wavelength. A long term increasing trend (∼ 2.8% per year) is observed in mixing region AOD from 1989 to 1997. A study on the development of the aerosols in the nocturnal mixing region shows that the convectively driven daytime altitude structure continues to persist for about 4–5 hrs. after the sunset and thereafter the altitude structure is governed by vertical structure of horizontal wind. Stratified aerosol layers associated with stratified turbulence is very common during the late night hours.     

On the influence of wavelength-dependent light scattering on the UV-VIS absorption spectra of oxygen-based minerals: a study on silicate glass ceramics as model substances

 The Mie scattering theory shows that the presence of randomly distributed submicroscopic inclusions with narrow size distribution and a refractive index n _i in a matrix with different refractive index n _m may give rise to a λ-dependent, band-like scattering (e.g., Kortüm 1969). Intensity and spectral position of this scattering depend on a combination of several independent parameters, such as size and number of inclusions, their form and n _i /n _m ratio (Kortüm 1969). Recently, it was confirmed that at a certain inclusion size and n _i /n _m ratio the scattering bands can contribute to the UV-edge in the electronic absorption spectra of garnets, influencing their colour (Khomenko et al. 2001). In natural minerals, however, it is impossible to differentiate between individual influence on scattering of the above mentioned parameters because of complex and interconnected variations in number, size and type of inclusions. Additionally, in most natural minerals variable amounts of transition metal ions are present. They may cause UV-VIS absorption due to ligand to metal charge transfer (LMCT) in the same region where band-like scattering may occur (Khomenko et al. 2001). At least some of these difficulties may be avoided in the case of some glass ceramics where number and size of crystalline microinclusions can be controlled by varying ceramization conditions such that fine-grained homogeneous microstructures are formed (e.g., James 1982; Petzoldt and Pannhorst 1991). Thus, glass ceramics of known composition, containing different amounts of microcrystals of specified size, may serve as unique patterns for the experimental study of effects caused by submicrocrystals on bulk properties of transparent solid materials, such as scattering, UV-VIS transparency and colour. Four types of parent glasses and a series of glass ceramic materials produced from them by heat treatment were investigated using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). These materials were also studied by transmission spectrometry in the range 35 000–20 000 cm⁻¹. Different inclusions, from five to several hundred nm in size, were observed in the glass matrices depending on their compositions and heating history. These inclusions represent two groups: early very small crystals of Ti, Zr oxides and relatively large crystals of stuffed high-quartz type or keatite. The absorption spectra of the glass ceramics show largely varying long-wavelength slopes of the UV absorption. UV-edge intensity correlates mostly with the size of the inclusions and changes drastically when larger keatite-type microcrystals are growing. Small variations in the UV edges also follow the early process of Ti-phase separation and nucleation. This may be explained by Ti depletion from the glass matrix and, thus, by reducing the measured intensity of LMCT in the first co-ordination sphere of Ti⁴⁺ ions. The different yellowish colourations of unheated glasses studied here are caused by this effect, whereas developing several hundred-nm-large keatite crystals leads to a strong scattering effect and a milky colour in glass ceramics. Received: 15 February 2002 / Accepted: 11 November 2002 Acknowledgements M. Garsche and A. Kisljuck generously provided the base glass and glass ceramic samples. F. Galbert and S. Herhing-Aghte, both at the Technical University Berlin, helped with electron microprobe analyses and refractive indices measurements, respectively. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, provided financial support through grant La324/35. To all these individuals and this institution our sincere thanks are due.     

多个相关随机参数的空间变异性对溶质运移的影响

根据给定渗透系数、孔隙度以及吸附系数的概率分布,采用顺序高斯模拟生成相关的多参数随机场的实现,作为地下水流和溶质运移模型的输入参数,对污染物浓度进行随机分析。研究结果表明,与仅考虑渗透系数空间变异性相比,考虑相关的多参数空间变异性导致污染羽的扩散程度有显著不同。当孔隙度与渗透系数呈正相关关系时,会减少污染羽的扩散程度,反之,当孔隙度与渗透系数为负相关关系时,会加剧污染羽的扩散程度。吸附系数也是如此。在考虑吸附系数的空间变异性之后,污染羽的分布表现出拖尾现象。同时考虑渗透系数、孔隙度以及吸附系数空间变异性时,孔隙度非均质性对溶质运移的影响较吸附系数非均质性的影响更大。     

Stochastic analysis of the effect of heterogeneity and fractures on radionuclide transport in a low-permeability clay layer

Deep low-permeability clay layers are considered as safe environments for disposal of high-level radioactive waste. In Belgium, the Boom Clay is a candidate host rock for deep geological disposal. In this study, we analyze the effects of fractures and spatially variable hydraulic conductivity on radionuclide migration through the clay. Fracture geometry and properties are simulated with Monte Carlo simulation. The heterogeneity of hydraulic conductivity is simulated by direct sequential co-simulation using measurements of hydraulic conductivity and four types of secondary variables. The hydraulic conductivity and fracture simulations are used as input for a transport model. Radionuclide fluxes computed with this heterogeneous model are compared with fluxes obtained with a homogeneous model. The output fluxes of the heterogeneous model differ at most 8% from the homogeneous model. The main safety function of the Boom Clay is thus not affected by the fractures and the spatial variability of hydraulic conductivity.     

边界条件对土层粘弹性地震反应的影响

边界条件是土层粘弹性地震反应必须考虑的问题。对于地表面，一般作为自由边界，而对于地下深处基岩面，边界条件有两种处理方法：一是静止边界，二是非静止边界的。首先给出了在时间域内单层地基一维土层粘弹性地震反应封闭解析解，然后从理论上分析边界条件对土层粘弹性地震反应的影响，认为采用静止边界进行土层地震反应计算得到的地震动加速度时程符合天然地震记录形式，而采用非静止边界进行土层地震反应计算得到的地震动加速度时程初始阶段出现较大幅度的振荡现象，随着土层厚度增加，这种振荡现象逐渐减弱直至消失。当土层阻尼较小或剪切波速增长时，振荡现象加剧；当土层阻尼比较大或剪切波速减小时，振荡现象减弱。此外，采用非静止边界进行土层地震反应计算，表现出随着土层厚度的增加，土层对基岩输入地震动的放大作用逐步转化为吸收作用。     

Marine boundary layer characteristics during a cyclonic storm over the Bay of Bengal

During the period 12–16 June 1996 a tropical cyclonic storm formed over the southwest Bay of Bengal and moved in a north-northeasterly direction. The thermodynamic characteristics of this system are investigated by utilizing the surface and upper air observations collected onboardORV Sagar Kanya over the Bay of Bengal region. The response of the cyclonic storm is clearly evident from the ship observations when the ship was within the distance of 600–800 km from the cyclonic storm. This study explores why (i) the whole atmosphere from surface to 500 hPa had become warm and moist during the cyclonic storm period as compared to before and after the formation of this system and (ii) the lower layer of the atmosphere had become stable during the formative stage of the cyclonic storm.     

The Influence of Element Diffusion at the Sediment—Water Interface on the Basic Chemical Composition of Overlying Water Mass in Lake Lugu,China

Little work has been done on the influence of seiments on the basic chemical composition of overlying water mass.This paper deals with the vertical profile of the basic constituents such as Ca^ ,K^ ,Na^ ,and HCO3^-,as well as of pH in the overlying water mass and sediment porewater of Lake Lugu-a semi-closed,deep lake in Yunnan Province.The reand sediment porewater of Lake Lugu- a semi-closed,deep lake in Yunnan Province.The results revealed that those basic constituents may diffuse and transport from bottom sediments to overlying water mass through porewater.In the paper are also quantitatively evaluated the diffusive fluxes and the extent of their influence on overlying water mass,indicating that the lake sediment-water interface diffusion plays an important role in controlling the basic chemical composition of water in the whole lake.     

On the formation of a sharp layer of metallic constituents at sunrise in the lower thermosphere

Results are presented of two instrumented rocket experiments performed from an equatorial station, one at night and the other shortly after sunrise. The ion neutral composition as well as electron density and the amplitude of plasma irregularities were monitored. During the latter flight, a sharp layer of ionisation with its lower boundary at 100 km was observed. The layer had a half width close to 1 km and a peak electron density of 5·6× 10⁴cm^?3. Large amplitude of plasma irregularities, noticed on the negative gradient portion of the layer indicates a downward direction of the polarisation electric field during the observations. The resulting downward drift of photoions as they are produced at sunrise followed by the local decrease of the drift is suggested to be the cause of the layer formation at that altitude. The long lasting nature of such layers once identified on ionograms indicates that they are constituted of metallic ions possibly of micrometeoritic origin deposited overnight in the lower thermosphere. The required photoionisation rate of production of the metallic ions at sunris eis about 2 cm^?3 sec^?1.