Chemistry of rainwater and aerosols over Bay of Bengal during CTCZ program

For the first time, simultaneous study on physical and chemical characteristics of PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and rainwater chemistry was attempted over the Bay of Bengal in monsoon season of 2009. The aerosols and rainwater samples were collected onboard ship ‘SK-261, ORV Sagar Kanya’ during Oceanographic Observations in the Northern Bay of Bengal under the Continental Tropical Convergence Zone (CTCZ) program conducted during 16 July to 19 Aug 2009. Aerosol samples collected by PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 were analyzed for various water soluble (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, NH ₄ ⁺ , Cl^?, SO ₄ ^2? and NO ₃ ^? and acid soluble (Fe²⁺, Al³⁺, Zn²⁺, Mn³⁺ and Ni²⁺) ionic constituents. The pH of rainwater varied from 5.10 to 7.04. Chloride ions contributed most to the total ion concentration in aerosol and rainwater, followed by Na⁺. Significant contributions of SO ₄ ^2? , NO ₃ ^? and NH ₄ ⁺ found in PM_2.5, PM₁₀ and high concentrations of TSP and non sea-salt SO ₄ ^2? over the mid-ocean is attributed to the long range transport of anthropogenic pollution from the Indian continent. The scavenging ratio was maximum for coarse particles such as Ca²⁺ and minimum for fine particles like NH ₄ ⁺ _.     

Study of the structure of a monsoon depression over the Bay of Bengal during Summer MONEX

Based on the data gathered during the Summer MONEX over the Bay of Bengal in July, 1979, a detailed observational study of the structure of a monsoon depression during the period of 3-8, July has been made. It has been revealed that the early disturbance of this depression was a mid-tropospheric cyclone. The subsequent rapid development was due mainly to the barotropic instability process of the basic zonal and meridional airflows.The cyclonic circulation of the depression extended in vertical upward to 500-400 mb level. Prior to the formation of the depression, the extremely strong westerly and northerly winds at the lower and middle levels, reaching the intensity of the low-level jet (22 m/s and 18.5 m/s, respectively), were observed. Post to the formation of the depression, a strong wind ring at the radius of 300-350 km from the depression center encircled the depression, with the wind maximum being at 850 mb. During this period, the maximum of the positive vorticity was of the magnitude of order of 10-4/s. The warm core at 400-300 mb was very remarkable. Finally, intrusion of the dry air over the depression may be an important factor leading to the weakening of the depression.     

Observed energy flux anomalies during MONEX-79 over the Bay of Bengal

Summary The dominant surface energy budget parameters, namely the net radiation fluxes, must be precisely known for an understanding of southwest monsoon behaviour and the early stages of formation of a meteorological system, i.e. trough, low pressure, depression, cyclone etc., and break monsoon conditions over the Bay of Bengal region. The data measured during the MONEX-79 period from July 16–31 are used in order to study the fluctuations of energy fluxes and the net radiation in the month of July over the region. During this period the total energy flux is increasing from South to North with a maximum over the head of the Bay. However, the fluctuation of net radiation is not significant. There is an outstanding increase in the energy flux with anomalies of values 240 W/m².

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Zusammenfassung Für das Verständnis des Südwestmonsuns und für die Entwicklung eines meteorologischen Systems, wie Trog-Tiefdruck-Depression-Zyklone etc., sowie für die Bedingungen des Monsunendes über der Bengalischen Bucht, ist das genaue Wissen um die wichtigen Parameter der Energiebilanz an der Oberfläche, insbesondere der Strahlungsbilanz und der anderen Energieflüsse, unverzichtbar. Die Beobachtungsdaten vom 16.–31. Juli während MONEX-79 werden zum Studium der Energieflußfluktuationen und der Strahlungsbilanz für Juli in diesem Gebiet herangezogen. In dieser Periode nahm die Energieflußsumme nach Norden zu, mit einem Maximum über dem nördlichsten Teil der Bucht, während die Fluktuation der Strahlungsbilanz unbedeutend blieb. Trotzdem zeigt sich eine bedeutende Erhöhung des Energieflusses von bis zu 240 W/m².

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With 2 Figures     

Cloud Condensation Nuclei over the Bay of Bengal during the Indian Summer Monsoon

The first measurements of cloud condensation nuclei(CCN) at five supersaturations were carried out onboard the research vessel "Sagar Kanya"(cruise SK-296) from the south to the head-bay of the Bay of Bengal as part of the Continental Tropical Convergence Zone(CTCZ) Project during the Indian summer monsoon of 2012. In this paper, we assess the diurnal variation in CCN distributions at supersaturations from 0.2% to 1%(in steps of 0.2%) and the power-law fit at supersaturation of 1%.The diurnal pattern shows peaks in CCN concentration(NCCN) at supersaturations from 0.2% to 1% between 0600 and 0700 LST(local standard time, UTC+0530), with relatively low concentrations between 1200 and 1400 LST, followed by a peak at around 1800 LST. The power-law fit for the CCN distribution at different supersaturation levels relates the empirical exponent(k) of supersaturation(%) and the NCCNat a supersaturation of 1%. The NCCNat a supersaturation of 0.4% is observed to vary from 702 cm~(-3) to 1289 cm~(-3), with a mean of 961 ± 161 cm~(-3)(95% confidence interval), representing the CCN activity of marine air masses. Whereas, the mean NCCNof 1628 ± 193 cm~(-3) at a supersaturation of 1% is higher than anticipated for the marine background. When the number of CCN spectra is 1293, the value of k is 0.57 ± 0.03(99% confidence interval)and its probability distribution shows cumulative counts significant at k ≈ 0.55 ± 0.25. The results are found to be better at representing the features of the marine environment(103 cm~(-3) and k ≈ 0.5) and useful for validating CCN closure studies for Indian sea regions.     

孟加拉湾风暴对高原地区降水的影响

利用卫星遥感数据TRMM(3B42)与地面观测数据变分订正后的降水量资料、TBB资料、NCEP/NCAR再分析资料,对1998 2010年25个孟加拉湾风暴的登陆路径、强度、冷空气入侵及大气季节变化对高原地区降水的影响进行了分类统计分析,结果表明:(1)孟加拉湾风暴是造成高原地区降水的重要天气系统,最活跃的时段集中在5月和10 11月,对高原地区的影响主要以降水为主;(2)在孟加拉湾风暴登陆的3条路径中,东北路径对云贵高原和青藏高原东南部地区影响最大,西北路径登陆风暴主要影响青藏高原南部地区,偏西路径登陆风暴对高原地区影响最小;(3)东北路径登陆风暴,热带风暴强度比飓风强度给高原地区带来更强的降水,而西北路径飓风强度风暴的影响较大;(4)当东北路径孟加拉湾风暴与云贵高原地区冷空气相遇时,其降水量比无冷空气配合时大2个等级;(5)孟加拉湾风暴活动时段存在5月和10 11月两个峰值,因季节性的大气环流(引导气流)和水汽输送(强弱)以及热带气旋生成基本条件的不同,导致了高原地区降水程度的差异。     

青藏高原地形对孟加拉湾热带气旋影响的对比研究

本文用我们的实验室模拟、个例诊断分析的结果与综合分析方法得到的热带气旋的典型结构相对比，进一步探讨了高原地形对孟加拉湾热带气旋的影响（消亡及降水等）机制问题。     

广西大范围暴雨期间孟加拉湾强对流演变及东移特征

分析1980~2002年主汛期(5~7月)广西锋面型大范围暴雨期间孟加拉湾对流云团演变及与之相应高低空环流变化,结果表明:孟加拉湾强对流在广西暴雨发生前3天发展最为旺盛,受孟加拉湾低槽引导,对流云团爬上中南半岛进入广西,当其与高原东移的云团相结合时再次发展,造成广西大范围暴雨。分析200 hPa高度场和流场结果表明:当广西暴雨发生时,孟加拉湾、中南半岛及广西受200 hPa南亚高压控制。分析850 hPa水汽通量矢量场结果表明:广西锋面型暴雨发生时,从孟加拉湾到广西上空有一西南气流的水汽输送带,广西暴雨水汽主要来源于孟加拉湾。     

“双峰”期孟加拉湾风暴对西南水汽输送的贡献

5月和10～11月是孟加拉湾风暴活动的两个"峰值"期, 风暴对西南水汽输送有重要影响, 本文利用2001～2010年10年的JTWC(Joint Typhoon Warning Centre)风暴资料和NCEP(National Centers for Environmental Prediction)/NCAR(National Center for Atmospheric Research)1°×1°再分析资料, 研究风暴"双峰"期对西南水汽输送的贡献, 结果表明:风暴水汽向北输送最强, 其次是向东输送, 其它方向的输送较弱;在风暴中心区域及西南水汽通道, 各层和整层的 通量均大于气候平均值, 风暴的西南水汽输送特征显著;两个"峰值"期风暴的经向水汽输送比纬向几乎大一倍, 5月"峰值"期孟加拉湾风暴在西南方向的实际水汽输送总量约是10～11月的2倍, 孟加拉湾风暴前"峰值"期(5月)对水汽输送的影响大于后"峰值"期(10～11月), 孟加拉湾风暴是5月西南水汽输送的主要系统之一。     

Variation of the total ozone column during tropical cyclones over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea

The variation of the total ozone column (TOC) before, during, and after tropical cyclones occurring in the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon periods over the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea for the period 1997–2009 is presented. From the analysis, it is concluded that TOC decreases steadily before and during the formation of a cyclone, followed by a more or less increasing trend after dissipation of the cyclone. It is also observed that, when the cyclone reaches its peak intensity indicated by its maximum wind speed, there is a sudden fall in TOC over those regions where the cyclone has intensified. The observed variation of TOC is consistent with existing chemical and dynamical theories.     

孟加拉湾风暴Mala结构及对云南强降水的影响

利用实时观测资料和NCEP(1°×1°)的6 h再分析资料,对2006年春季发生在孟加拉湾的超强风暴Mala的移动路径、强度变化、环流背景以及风暴温湿场、动力场特征等进行分析。结果表明:Mala在阿拉伯副热带高压和西太平洋副热带高压两高间辐合区生成、加强,并沿西太平洋副热带高压西侧西南或偏南气流移动。风暴发展、成熟到消亡,湿度对风暴的作用比温度明显;动力场结构除具有台风结构的一般特征外,在风暴发展期,中心附近散度场从低层到高层为辐合和辐散交替结构,表明风暴内部高空辐散抽吸作用对于风暴发展起到重要作用。登陆后风暴低压内自身能量和水汽与冷空气共同作用下,在冷暖交汇处出现强烈的上升运动和激发出中尺度辐合线是造成云南强降水主要原因。     

阿拉伯海和孟加拉湾夏季风气候特征的差异

利用 1 958— 1 997年 3— 1 1月 NCEP/NCAR850和 2 0 0 h Pa再分析风场资料 ,研究了南亚夏季风活动的气候特征。发现南亚不同区域的经、纬向风季节变化及纬向风的峰型结构差异明显。夏季在阿拉伯海和孟加拉湾分别有两个最明显西南风速中心 ,这两个地区的西南风活动明显不同 ,孟加拉湾西南风出现及向北推进到2 0°N时间比阿拉伯海明显偏早 ,结束时间偏晚 ,是南亚季风区西南夏季风维持时间最长的地区。对比分析强、弱夏季风年 6— 8月高、低层经、纬向风距平垂直切变矢量风场发现 ,热带低纬度越赤道气流及南亚季风区的流场结构明显不同。     

一个孟加拉湾低压水汽场的初步分析

根据1979年夏季季风试验时期较稠密的高空资料,本文对7月3—9日发生在孟加拉湾地区的一个季风低压进行了水汽场的分析,计算了可降水量、垂直加权的相对湿度、水汽通量散度和海面蒸发的分布,发现随着低压环流的发展,低压由一个干涡迅速地转变成一个湿涡.在成熟期,各种湿度参数都达到低压生命期的最大值.总的来说,这个低压湿度场的演变似乎是低压环流场发展的一种结果.可降水量与低压环流很相似;平均相对湿度与ω分布有更密切的关系;水汽辐合场很不对称(主要在低压以西和以南),它与实际云区和降水区一致.研究还发现;低压的发展和     

孟加拉湾风暴时空分布和活动规律统计特征

利用1945-2006年JTWC公布的孟加拉湾风暴资料,对其进行统计分析.结果表明:孟加拉湾热带气旋(下称孟湾TC)生成个数年平均约为8.12个,全年均有发生,其中2～3月最少,之后开始增加,10月达到峰值;与孟湾TC不同,孟加拉湾热带风暴(下称孟湾TS)呈双峰型分布,峰值为5月和9～10月.从孟湾TS的强度上看,达到H4标准的超级强风暴1971-1986年仅出现1次,而1987-2006年则出现了8次.孟湾TS生成位置、平均维持时间和最长维持时间的月际变化均呈双峰型分布,4～5月和10～11月为峰值.孟湾TS的生成位置10～11月峰值大于4～5月,而平均维持时间和最长维持时间则是4～5月峰值大于10～11月.孟湾TC登陆方向大部分为西北或偏西路径,占56.7%.孟湾TS登陆方向与TC有一些不同,主要差异是西北路径和未登陆次数减少,偏西和东北路径增加.由于4～5月是孟湾TS东北路径登陆的一个峰值,因此,与云南雨季开始期关系密切,对云南初夏降水影响很大.     

A study of mean boundary-layer structures over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal during active and break monsoon periods

Observations from research ships which took part in the Indo-Soviet Monsoon Experiment of 1977 (MONSOON 77) and the International Monsoon Experiments (MONEX 79) over the central Arabian Sea and the north central Bay of Bengal were analyzed to study the mean wind and temperature structure of the monsoon boundary layer during active and break conditions. Mean profiles of wind speed and direction along with virtual potential temperature obtained by averaging data from several research ships during 1977 and 1979 indicate that onset conditions were associated with substantial increases in wind speed over the Arabian Sea and a shift to strong southwest flow. Monsoon onset was also characterized by near-neutral to slightly unstable temperature profiles in the lowest kilometer. Break conditions in 1977 in which the monsoon trough moved northward and substantial (5 mb) pressure rises were noted over the Arabian Sea show wind speeds typically decreasing from approximately 18 m s^–1 during active conditions to roughly 8 m s ^–1. Temperature profiles during break conditions are similar to those observed in pre-monsoon conditions in that the boundary layer is observed to be generally much more stable up to 900 mb. Above 900 mb, profiles of virtual potential temperature show little variation.Analysis of latent and sensible heat fluxes during June 1977 calculated by the bulk aerodynamic method indicates values of latent heat flux during active conditions to be roughly two to three times larger than those during break conditions. Sensible heat flux shows an increase from approximately 20 to 80 W m ^–1 during the onset of the monsoon. Surface fluxes of water vapor indicate the importance of water vapor transport over the ship observation region in the central Arabian Sea during active conditions. Onset of the monsoon over the Arabian Sea is accompanied by an increase in the surface moisture flux by a factor of about two. Time histories of precipitable water show decreases of approximately 15% from active to break periods.     

Warming SST of Bay of Bengal and decrease in formation of cyclonic disturbances over the Indian region during southwest monsoon season

Low-pressure system (LPS), a major rain-bearing synoptic circulation, forming over the Indian region, including Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea plays a vital role in performance of southwest monsoon over the country. The term LPS includes lows, depressions and cyclonic storms. According to the intensities, LPS are categorized into two, one only low-pressure areas (LPA) and the other more intense systems like depressions/storms (DDS). Statistical analysis reveals some significant results. Decadal analysis shows that there is a significant increase(decrease) in the frequency and duration of LPA(DDS) during the monsoon season for the recent decades. SST of Bay of Bengal also increased significantly during recent period. It is also observed that frequency and duration of LPA(DDS) show significant positive(negative) trend and sea surface temperature (SST) of the Bay of Bengal shows significant positive trend for the period after 1960. The total frequency of LPS has neither increased nor decreased significantly but the duration of LPS has significantly increased. This means, while the average total formation of the systems remains the same, the duration has increased. It seems that there are some atmospheric and oceanic conditions which are responsible for not allowing the intensification of lows into depressions. The frequency and duration of LPA(DDS) during the monsoon season are positively(negatively) correlated with SSTs of the Bay of Bengal during winter, pre-monsoon and monsoon season indicating warmer SST of the Bay of Bengal may not be favourable for intensifying lows into depressions.     

An assessment of TropFlux and NCEP air-sea fluxes on ROMS simulations over the Bay of Bengal region

This study presents an assessment of the TropFlux and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) reanalysis air-sea fluxes in simulating the surface and subsurface oceanic parameters over the Bay of Bengal (BoB) region during 2002–2014 using the Regional Ocean Modelling System (ROMS). The assessment has been made by comparing the simulated fields with in-situ and satellite observations. The simulated surface and subsurface temperatures in the TropFlux forced experiment (TropFlux-E) show better agreement with the Research Moored Array for African-Asian-Australian Monsoon Analysis (RAMA) and Argo observations than the NCEP forced experiment (NCEP-E). The BoB domain averaged sea surface temperature (SST) simulated in the NCEP-E is consistently cooler than the satellite SST, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.79 °C. Moreover, NCEP-E shows a limitation in simulating the observed seasonal cycle of the SST due to substantial underestimation of the pre-monsoon SST peak. These limitations are mostly due to the lower values of the NCEP net heat flux. The seasonal and interannual variations of SST in the TropFlux-E are better comparable to the observations with correlations and skills more than 0.80 and 0.90 respectively. However, SST is overestimated during summer monsoon periods mainly due to higher net heat flux. The superiority of TropFlux forcing over the NCEP reanalysis can also be seen when simulating the interannual variabilities of the magnitude and vertical extent of Wyrtki jets at two equatorial RAMA buoy locations. The jet is weaker in the NCEP-E relative to the TropFlux-E and observations. The simulated sea surface height anomalies (SSHA) from both the experiments are able to capture the regions of positive and negative SSHA with respect to satellite-derived altimeter data with better performance in the TropFlux-E. The speed of the westward propagating Rossby wave along 18°N in the TropFlux-E is found to be about 4.7 cm/s, which is close to the theoretical phase speed of Rossby waves.     

Characteristic Study of the Boundary Layer Parameters over the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal Using the QuikSCAT Dataset

The marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL) plays a vital role in the transport of momentum and heat from the surface of the ocean into the atmosphere. A detailed study on the MABL characteristics was carried out using high-resolution surface-wind data as measured by the QuikSCAT (Quick scatterometer) satellite. Spatial variations in the surface wind, frictional velocity, roughness parameter and drag coefficient for the different seasons were studied. The surface wind was strong during the southwest monsoon season due to the modulation induced by the Low Level Jetstream. The drag coefficient was larger during this season, due to the strong winds and was lower during the winter months. The spatial variations in the frictional velocity over the seas was small during the post-monsoon season (～0.2 m s-1). The maximum spatial variation in the frictional velocity was found over the south Arabian Sea (0.3 to 0.5 m s-1) during the southwest monsoon period, followed by the pre-monsoon over the Bay of Bengal (0.1 to 0.25 m s-1). The mean wind-stress curl during the winter was positive over the equatorial region, with a maximum value of 1.5×10-7N m-3, but on either side of the equatorial belt, a negative wind-stress curl dominated. The area average of the frictional velocity and drag coefficient over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal were also studied. The values of frictional velocity shows a variability that is similar to the intraseasonal oscillation (ISO) and this was confirmed via wavelet analysis. In the case of the drag coefficient, the prominent oscillations were ISO and quasi-biweekly mode (QBM). The interrelationship between the drag coefficient and the frictional velocity with wind speed in both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal was also studied.     

Southwesterly Water Vapor Transport Induced by Tropical Cyclones over the Bay of Bengal during the South Asian Monsoon Transition Period

Based on best-track, outgoing longwave radiation, sea surface temperature, and reanalysis data during 1979–2018, statistical and composite analyses were perform...     

Competing impact of anthropogenic emissions and meteorology on the distribution of trace gases over Indian region

The spatial distribution of trace gases exhibit large spatial heterogeneity over the Indian region with an elevated pollution loading over densely populated Gangetic Plains (IGP). The contending role and importance of anthropogenic emissions and meteorology in deciding the trace gases level and distribution over Indian region, however, is poorly investigated. In this paper, we use an online regional chemistry transport model (WRF/Chem) to simulate the spatial distribution of trace gases over Indian region during one representative month of only three meteorological seasons namely winter, spring/summer and monsoon. The base simulation, using anthropogenic emissions from SEAC⁴RS inventory, is used to simulate the general meteorological conditions and the realistic spatial distribution of trace gases. A sensitivity simulation is conducted after removing the spatial heterogeneity in the anthropogenic emissions, i.e., with spatially uniform emissions to decouple the role of anthropogenic emissions and meteorology and their role in controlling the distribution of trace gases over India. The concentration levels of Ozone, CO, SO₂ and NO₂ were found to be lower over IGP when the emissions are uniform over India. A comparison of the base run with the sensitivity run highlights that meteorology plays a dominant role in controlling the spatial distribution of relatively longer-lived species like CO and secondary species like Ozone while short-lived species like NO_X and SO₂ are predominantly controlled by the spatial variability in anthropogenic emissions over the Indian region.     

亚洲夏季风爆发前后西北太平洋和孟加拉湾热带气旋活动统计特征

亚洲夏季风爆发始于孟加拉湾,然后向中国南海和印度次大陆扩展,其过程约持续1个月。各地区夏季风爆发时间呈明显的年际变化。利用热带气旋资料和气象再分析资料,统计了1951-2010年孟加拉湾和中国南海夏季风爆发前后西北太平洋热带气旋、孟加拉湾气旋风暴活动和夏季风爆发的关系。结果表明,在孟加拉湾夏季风爆发过程中,共有36 a出现孟加拉湾气旋风暴,并且夏季风爆发偏早年出现风暴的几率最高,为80%。在孟加拉湾夏季风爆发偏早、正常和偏晚3种类型中,孟加拉湾风暴活动频率高峰期多出现在夏季风爆发前后几天内。并且在孟加拉湾风暴活动频率高峰出现前期,西北太平洋热带气旋最先出现活动频率高峰。孟加拉湾夏季风爆发前有40%-50%的年份西北太平洋出现热带气旋活动,其中,夏季风爆发偏早年,爆发前西北太平洋热带气旋活跃的时间偏早（4月第2候）,且多活动在中国南海和菲律宾附近;爆发正常年,西北太平洋热带气旋活跃的时间为4月第4候,多活动在略偏东的海域;爆发偏晚年,西北太平洋热带气旋活跃的时间为5月初,活动区域最偏东。中国南海夏季风爆发过程中,60 a中共有29 a西北太平出现热带气旋,其中爆发偏早和正常年出现热带气旋的频率较高,并且热带气旋多出现在爆发当日和爆发后一段时间。整体来看,亚洲夏季风爆发前,西北太平洋热带气旋活动频率最先开始增强,然后孟加拉湾风暴开始活跃并伴随着孟加拉湾夏季风爆发,夏季风爆发偏早和正常年,孟加拉湾夏季风爆发后,西北太平洋热带气旋再次增强,中国南海夏季风爆发。