Recent crustal deformation of İzmir, Western Anatolia and surrounding regions as deduced from repeated GPS measurements and strain field

To investigate contemporary neotectonic deformation in İzmir, Western Anatolia and in its neighborhood, a relatively dense Global Positioning System (GPS) monitoring network was established in 2001. Combination of three spatially dense GPS campaigns in 2001, 2003 and 2004 with temporally dense campaigns between 1992 and 2004 resulted in a combined velocity field representing active deformation rate in the region. We computed horizontal and vertical velocity fields with respect to Earth-centered, Earth-fixed ITRF2000, to Eurasia and to Anatolia as well.The rates of principal and shear strains along with rigid-body rotation rates were derived from velocity field. Results show east–west shortening between Karaburun Peninsula and northern part of İzmir Bay together with the extension of İzmir Bay in accordance with general extension regime of Western Anatolia and Eastern Agea. East–west shortening and north–south extension of Karaburun Peninsula are closely related to right-lateral faulting and a clockwise rotation. There exists a block in the middle of the peninsula with a differential motion at a rate of 3–5 ± 1 mm/year and 5–6 ± 1 mm/year to the east and south, respectively.As is in Western Anatolia, north–south extension is dominant in almost all parts of the region despite the fact that they exhibit significantly higher rates in the middle of the peninsula. Extensional rates along Tuzla Fault lying nearly perpendicular to İzmir Bay and in its west are maximum in the region with an extension rate of 300–500 ± 80–100 nanostrain/year and confirm its active state. Extensional rates in other parts of the region are at level of 50–150 nanostrain/year as expected in the other parts of Western Anatolia.     

Integrated geophysical methods for the characterisation of an archaeological site (Massenzio Basilica — Roman forum, Rome, Italy)

A geophysical study that involved different techniques was carried out with the aim to improve the knowledge of the archaeological site where the Basilica of Maxentius was founded and to discern individual covered structures (foundations).Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), seismic refraction and Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) studies were performed in the archaeological site. VES and seismic refraction allowed to characterise the main geological formations of the hill where the Basilica was built and to distinguish the concrete floor and backfilling. Electrical data were processed using different algorithms; their results were compared to appraise the inverted models' robustness.ERT inversion algorithms were used to delineate shape and size of a much more complex structure, that were originally expected from archaeological excavation plan. The results of the commercial program were used as a posteriori information to include them in the algorithm proposed by the authors; the sequential use of the programs defined a processing procedure.The integrated use of different geophysical techniques reduced a great deal the intrinsic ambiguities of each method. Direct explorations (boreholes and archaeological excavations) confirmed the geophysical results.     

Geochemical characteristics of Yamadağı volcanics in central east Anatolia: an example from collision-zone volcanism

Neogene Yamadağı volcanic rocks consist of basaltic trachyandesite, trachyandesite, andesite, and dacite. The major- and trace-element chemistry indicates that the lavas are dominantly calc-alkaline and mildly alkaline in character, sodic in nature, and intermediate to acidic in composition. REE and trace-element patterns of volcanic rocks are similar to those typical of within plate magmatics. Volcanic rocks have low ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (0.70389–0.70633) and high ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios (0.51267–0.51276) and mostly plot within the mantle array of the isotope ratio diagram. The linear correlations among ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr−¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd, SiO₂−⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and SiO₂−¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd isotope ratios in the volcanics suggest that fractional crystallization combined with minor assimilation was an important process within the collision zone.     

Water/rock interaction in the Kızılcahamam Geothermal Field, Galatian Volcanic Province (Turkey): a modelling study of a geothermal system for reinjection well locations

The Kızılcahamam geothermal field is emplaced in Tertiary-aged volcanic units 70 km NW of Ankara (Turkey). Data for this low-temperature (74–86°C) geothermal field regarding the fracture zone system were obtained from surface manifestations (hot springs, alteration zones), five exploration wells (MTA-2, -3, -4, -5, -6) and two production wells (KHD-1, MTA-1). The Kızılcahamam reservoir developed along the Kızılcahamam fault zone and so the production wells (180–1556 m) effect each other due to their limited separation. Meteoric water enters from a recharge area NE of Kızılcahamam, circulates and gains heat through the fault zone, and discharges to the surface.Detailed petrographical studies have been carried out with samples taken from surface rocks, cores, and cuttings from three wells (KHD-1, MTA-2, -3). X-ray diffraction techniques were also used in the present study. Kaolinite and montmorillonite zones were identified at outcrop samples. Chloritization, clay mineralization, sericitization and carbonization were determined in the ground mass of samples from wells. The observed alteration mineral assemblages indicate that Kızılcahamam geothermal system has been cooling since the alteration minerals formed.The exploration well MTA-3 seems to be more suitable for a reinjection well than the other wells (MTA-2, -6), even if the cost of surface piping to transport the waste water to MTA-3 is higher than to another well (MTA-6).     

VS30, site amplifications and some comparisons: The Adapazari (Turkey) case

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of V_S30 in site amplifications in the Adapazari region, Turkey. To fulfil this aim, amplifications from V_S30 measurements were compared with earthquake data for different soil types in the seismic design codes. The Adapazari area was selected as the study area, and shear-wave velocity distribution was obtained by the multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASWs) method at 100 sites for the top 50 m of soil. Aftershock data following the Mw 7.4 Izmit earthquake of 17 August 1999 gave magnitudes between 4.0 and 5.6 at six stations installed in and around the Adapazari Basin, at Babalı, Şeker, Genç, Hastane, Toyota and Imar. This data was used to estimate site amplifications by the reference-station method. In addition, the fundamental periods of the station sites were estimated by the single station method. Site classifications based on V_S30 in the seismic design codes were compared with the fundamental periods and amplification values. It was found that site amplifications (from earthquake data) and relevant spectra (from V_S30) are not in good agreement for soils in Adapazari (Turkey).     

Palaeomagnetic study of the Kepezdağ and Yamadağ volcanic complexes, central Turkey: Neogene tectonic escape and block definition in the central-east Anatolides

The Anatolian accretionary collage between Afro-Arabia and Eurasia is currently subject to two tectonic regimes. Ongoing slip of Arabia relative to Africa along the Dead Sea Fault Zone in the east is extruding crustal blocks away from the indenter by a combination of strike-slip and rotation. This zone of compression gives way to an extensional province in western Turkey, which also includes the eastern sector of Aegean Province. Although it is now well established that rotational deformation throughout Anatolia is distributed and differential, the sizes of the blocks involved are poorly understood. As a contribution towards evaluating this issue in central-east Turkey, we report palaeomagnetic study of the mid-Miocene Kepezda? and Yamada? volcanic complexes in central-south Anatolia (38–39.5°N, 37.5–39°E). A distributed sample through the Yamada? complex identifies eruption during an interval of multiple geomagnetic field reversals (40 normal, 36 reversed, 8 intermediate sites) with a selected mean defined by 63 sites of D/I = 335.4/51.1° (α₉₅ = 4.4°). The smaller Kepezda? complex (8 reversed, 4 normal and 1 intermediate site) yields a comparable mean direction from 12 sites of 338.7/49.8° (α₉₅ = 14.1°). In the context of a range of radiometric age evidence, two thick normal polarity zones within the Yamada? succession probably correlate with zones C5ACn and C5ADn of the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale and imply that the bulk of the volcanic activity took place between ∼15 and 13.5 Ma. Comparison of the palaeomagnetic results with the adjoining major plate indenters shows that the Yamada? complex has rotated CCW by 29.3 ± 5.2° relative to Eurasia; the much smaller dataset from the Kepezda? complex indicates a comparable CCW rotation of 26.0 ± 11.8° with respect to Eurasia. The Arabian Indenter has also been rotating CCW since mid Miocene times, and the block incorporating these two volcanic complexes north of the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ) is determined to have rotated 18.2 ± 6.0° CCW relative to the northern perimeter of Arabia. Comparison with data to the north identifies quasi-uniform rotation across a ∼200 km wide block extending from the Central Anatolian Fault Zone in the northwest to close to the East Anatolian transform fault zone in the south east. Although absence of suitable younger rocks does not permit the timing of this rotation to be determined in the study area, analogies with results from the Sivas Basin suggest that it is young, and followed establishment of the major transform faults. Rotation has evidently taken place around bounding arcuate faults and accompanied westward expulsion as the accretionary collage north of Arabia has been subject to ongoing post-collisional indentation.     

Fusion of multi‐resolution surface (terrestrial laser scanning) and subsurface geodata (ERT,SRT) for karst landform investigation and geomorphometric quantification

A multi‐method research design based on terrestrial laser scanning, GIS, geophysical prospecting (electrical resistivity tomography, refraction seismics) and sedimentology is applied for the first time to investigate enclosed karst depressions in an integrated way. Fusing multi‐resolution surface and subsurface geodata provides profound insights into the formation, geometry and geomorphologic processes of dolines. The studied landforms, which are located in the Dikti Mountains of East Crete, are shown to be filled by loose sediments of thicknesses of up to 30 m that mainly consist of fine‐grained material overlying solid bedrock at depths below 35 to 45 m. By combining subsurface observations with geomorphometric calculations, local doline genesis can be traced back to initial collapse of fractured bedrock followed by subsequent infilling with colluvials. In order to define crucial methodological requirements and guidelines for data fusion, both the impact of different elevation models and the influence of data resolution are assessed. Surface volumes of depressions derived by the digital surface model are 7–21% higher than the results obtained from the terrain model due to vegetation. Similarly, estimates of infill volume calculated on the basis of geophysical outcomes and elevation data differ by up to 13%. Calculations of the landforms' current volumes (i.e. total surface and subsurface volume), however, are fairly insensitive to raster resolution. Hence, the distinct geomorphologic properties of landforms (e.g. shape, terrain roughness, slope inclination) substantially determine the geomorphometric analysis of both surface and subsurface data. As shown by the findings, data fusion to integrate digital terrain, geophysical and sedimentological datasets of varied resolutions benefits geomorphologic studies and helps provide a comprehensive image of landforms. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Silicate‐oxide mineral chemistry of mafic–ultramafic rocks as an indicator of the roots of an island arc: The Chilas Complex,Kohistan (Pakistan)

The Chilas Complex is a major lower crustal component of the Cretaceous Kohistan island arc and one of the largest exposed slices of arc magma chamber in the world. Covering more than 8000 km², it reaches a current tectonic width of around 40 km. It was emplaced at 85 Ma during rifting of the arc soon after the collision of the arc with the Karakoram plate. Over 85% of the Complex comprises homogeneous, olivine‐free gabbronorite and subordinate orthopyroxene–quartz diorite association (MGNA), which contains bodies of up to 30 km² of ultramafic–mafic–anorthositic association (UMAA) rocks. Primary cumulate textures, igneous layering, and sedimentary structures are well preserved in layered parts of the UMAA in spite of pervasive granulite facies metamorphism. Mineral analyses show that the UMAA is characterized by more magnesian and more aluminous pyroxene and more calcic plagioclase than those in the MGNA. High modal abundances of orthopyroxene, magnetite and ilmenite (in MGNA), general Mg–Fe–Al spatial variations, and an MFA plot of whole‐rock analyses suggest a calc‐alkaline origin for the Complex. Projection of the pyroxene compositions on the Wo–En–Fs face is akin to those of pyroxenes from island arcs gabbros. The presence of highly calcic plagioclase and hornblende in UMAA is indicative of hydrous parental arc magma. The complex may be a product of two‐stage partial melting of a rising mantle diaper. The MGNA rocks represent the earlier phase melting, whereas the UMAA magma resulted from the melting of the same source depleted by the extraction of the earlier melt phase. Some of the massive peridotites in the UMAA may either be cumulates or represent metasomatized and remobilized upper mantle. The Chilas Complex shows similarities with many other (supra)subduction‐related mafic–ultramafic complexes worldwide.     

Petrology and geochemistry of potassic rocks in the Gölcük area (Isparta, SW Turkey): genesis of enriched alkaline magmas

The Lower Pliocene volcanic rocks occurring in the Gölcük area of SW Turkey exhibit alkaline major element trends with a general potassic character. The development of volcanism can be divided into 2 major stages such as trachytic ancient lavas/domes and tephriphonolitic, trachyandesitic to trachytic Gölcük eruptions (ignimbrites, lava/dome extrusions, phreatomagmatic deposits, and finally, young domes). Volcanic rocks consist primarily of plagioclase, clinopyroxene (which ranges in composition from diopside to augite and are commonly zoned), biotite, and phlogopite. Amphibole phenocrysts are restricted to the pyroclastic deposits. Pseudoleucites are also seen only in the lava/dome extrusions. Oxides and apatites are common accessory phenocryst phases. As would be expected from their potassic–alkaline nature, the volcanic rocks of the Gölcük area contain high amounts of LILE (Ba, Sr, Rb and K), LREE, and Zr. Concentrations of compatible elements such as Cr, Ni and V are very low, possibly indicating fractionation of olivine and clinopyroxene. Correlation of SiO₂, Rb/Sr and MgO with ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr (0.703506–0.704142) exhibit an increasing trend in the direction of crustal contamination. However, the isotopic compositions of Sr are not as high to indicate a high level of crustal contamination. Geochemical data are consistent with the derivation of Gölcük volcanic rocks from a metasomatized and/or enriched lithospheric mantle source during crustal extension in the area. This metasomatism was probably occurred by fluids released from the northward subduction between African and Eurasian plates during Tertiary, as the Gölcük volcanic rocks display features of island-arc magmas with having high Ba/Nb (>28) ratios, and Nb and Ti depletions. Lower Pliocene volcanism in the Gölcük was response to extensional tectonics.     

New insights on the origin of troctolites from the breakaway area of the Godzilla Megamullion (Parece Vela back‐arc basin): The role of melt‐mantle interaction on the composition of the lower crust

The troctolites and olivine‐gabbros from the Dive 6 K‐1147 represent the most primitive gabbroic rocks collected at the Godzilla Megamullion, a giant oceanic core complex formed at an extinct spreading segment of the Parece Vela back‐arc basin (Philippine Sea). Previous investigations have shown that these rocks have textural and major elements mineral compositions consistent with a formation through multistage interaction between mantle‐derived melts and a pre‐existing ultramafic matrix. New investigations on trace element mineral compositions basically agree with this hypothesis. Clinopyroxenes and plagioclase have incompatible element signatures similar to that of typical‐MORB. However, the clinopyroxenes show very high Cr contents (similar to those of mantle clinopyroxene) and rim having sharply higher Zr/REE ratios with respect to the core. These features are in contrast with an evolution constrained by fractional crystallization processes, and suggest that the clinopyroxene compositions are controlled by melt‐rock interaction processes. The plagioclase anorthite versus clinopyroxene Mg#[Mg/(Mg + Fe^Tot)] correlation of the Dive 6 K‐1147 rocks shows a trend much steeper than those depicted by other oceanic gabbroic sections. Using a thermodynamic model, we show that this trend is reproducible by fractionation of melts assimilating 1 g of mantle peridotite per 1 °C of cooling. This model predicts the early crystallization of high Mg# clinopyroxene, consistent with our petrological observation. The melt‐peridotite interaction process produces Na‐rich melts causing the crystallization of plagioclase with low anorthite component, typically characterizing the evolved gabbros from Godzilla Megamullion.     

Electrical imaging of sliding geometry and fluids associated with a deep seated landslide (La Clapière,France)

This paper deals with the applicability of electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) for the recognition of large landslide structures at depths, which have never previously been imaged accurately. One of the most studied and instrumented deep landslides in Europe is taken as an example: the La Clapière landslide. The first stage of the study consisted of an accurate geological mapping taking into account a morphological analysis of gravitational deformations. This allowed a very fine definition of the landslide structure, that could be compared with three provided ERT profiles performed within the landslide body. Very good correlations were obtained for the determination of sub‐horizontal structures and associated fluid circulations. It confirmed the position of the sliding surface that reached a maximum depth of 100 m. Forward computing was however necessary to determine the influence and then the presence of vertical discontinuities. It supports the use of ERT as an efficient tool for large scale landslide imaging, such as deep seated landslides. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of groundwater in cliff instability: an example at Cape Blanc‐Nez (Pas‐de‐Calais,France)

Cliff retreat in northern Boulonnais is described. The distribution of the amount of retreat is related to structural and topographic factors. Both control the runoff–infiltration balance and therefore the mechanical behaviour of the rocks, which determines the modes of failure. The spatial variability of the retreat rate is explained, but predicting the temporal variability of the retreat rate, which is central to risk management, is much more difficult. Rainfall and piezometric surface data enhanced a ‘piston flow’ mechanism during November 2000. The result of its occurrence on the stability of the cliff and conditions of its recurrence are examined with a view to better understanding the rate of recession of coastal cliffs and wiser management of risk. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Testing geomorphic signal of active normal faulting: The case of the Cittanova Fault (Calabria,southern Italy)

Extracting tectonic signals from the landscape is an important challenge for constraining the style and rate of deformation associated with active faults, especially where their displacement history cannot be independently determined. Based on previous paleoseismological data coupled with new geomorphological field work and ¹⁴C dating of geomorphic markers, we analysed the geomorphic signal of the along‐strike differential throw of the Cittanova Fault in southern Calabria (Italy), the recent activity of which is already well documented and constrained. Through DTM‐derived stream power law parameters (SL and χ), we provide evidence of drainage network disequilibrium and reorganization in response to fault growth and deformation style. Furthermore, a methodological test of the reliability of the χ metric as a proxy for the differential throw along the strike of active normal faults provided good preliminary results, consistent with a strong inverse linear correlation with fault throw. Copyright © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Water and air dynamics within a deep vadose zone of a karst massif: Observations from the Lukina jama–Trojama cave system (−1,431 m) in Dinaric karst (Croatia)

Extreme heterogeneity of karst systems makes them very challenging to study. Various processes within the system affect its global response, usually measured at karst springs. Research conducted in caves provides a unique opportunity for in situ analysis of separate processes in karst underground. The aim of the present study was to research the water and air dynamics within a deep karst system. Air and water basic physical parameters across the Lukina jama–Trojama cave system (?1,431 m) were continuously monitored during a 1‐year period. Recorded hydrograph of the siphon lake at the bottom of the cave was used to interpret the characteristics of an unexplored phreatic/epiphreatic conduit network. Water origin in the siphon was determined based on temperature and electrical conductivity. Air temperature and humidity monitoring revealed a strong inflow of air of sub‐zero temperature into the upper portion of the cave during winter. Cave passage morphology was interpreted as the main determinant of air dynamics, which caused ice to accumulate extensively in the upper portions of the cave and caused the temperature on the top of the homothermic zone to be significantly below the mean outside temperature. Air dynamics also lowered the temperature of water flowing through the cave vadose zone and feeding the phreatic zone of the massif. The pronounced temperature difference between the phreatic zone and the top of the homothermic zone probably contributed to the thermal gradient observed in the cave, which is steeper than in ice‐free caves in the area. Our results enabled the development of a conceptual model that describes coupling between air and water dynamics in the cave system and its surroundings.     

The hydrochemistry of runoff from a ‘cold-based’ glacier in the High Arctic (Scott Turnerbreen,Svalbard)

There are still relatively few hydrochemical studies of glacial runoff and meltwater routing from the high latitudes, where non-temperate glacier ice is frequently encountered. Representative samples of glacier meltwater were obtained from Scott Turnerbreen, a ‘cold-based’ glacier at 78° N in the Norwegian high Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, during the 1993 melt season and analysed for major ion chemistry. Laboratory dissolution experiments were also conducted, using suspended sediment from the runoff. Significant concentrations of crustal weathering derived SO²⁻₄ are present in the runoff, which is characterized by high ratios of SO²⁻₄: (SO²⁻₄+HCO⁻₃) and high p(CO₂). Meltwater is not routed subglacially, but flows to the glacier terminus through subaerial, ice marginal channels, and partly flows through a proglacial icing, containing highly concentrated interstitial waters, immediately afront the terminus. The hydrochemistry of the runoff is controlled by: (1) seasonal variations in the input of solutes from snow- and icemelt; (2) proglacial solute acquisition from the icing; and (3) subaerial chemical weathering within saturated, ice-cored lateral moraine adjoining drainage channels at the glacier margins, sediment and concentrated pore water from which is entrained by flowing meltwater. Diurnal variations in solute concentration arise from the net effects of variable sediment pore water entrainment and dilution in the ice marginal streams. Explanation of the hydrochemistry of Scott Turnerbreen requires only one major subaerial flow path, the ice marginal channel system, in which seasonally varying inputs of concentrated snowmelt and dilute icemelt are modified by seepage or entrainment of concentrated pore waters from sediment in lateral moraine, and by concentrated interstitial waters from the proglacial icing, supplied by leaching, slow drainage at grain intersections or simple melting of the icing itself. The ice marginal channels are analogous neither to dilute supra/englacial nor to concentrated subglacial flow components. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of river‐to‐lake backflow on the hydrodynamics of a large floodplain lake system (Poyang Lake,China)

Backflow, the temporary reversal of discharge at the outlet of a lake, is an important mechanism controlling flow and transport in many connected river–lake systems. This study used statistical methods to examine long‐term variations and primary causal factors of backflow from the Yangtze River to a laterally connected, large floodplain lake (Poyang Lake, China). Additionally, the effects of backflow on the lake hydrology were explored using a physically based hydrodynamic model and a particle‐tracking model. Although backflow into Poyang Lake occurs frequently, with an average of 16 backflow events per year, and varies greatly in magnitude between years, statistical analysis indicates that both the frequency and magnitude of backflow reduced significantly during 2001–2010 relative to the previous period of 1960–2000. The ratio of Poyang Lake catchment inflows to Yangtze River discharge can be used as an indication of the daily occurrence of backflow, which is most likely to occur during periods when this ratio is lower than 5%. Statistical analysis also indicates that the Yangtze River discharge is the main controlling factor of backflow during July to October, rather than catchment inflows to the lake. Hydrodynamic modelling reveals that, in general, backflow disturbs the normal northward water flow direction in Poyang Lake and transports mass ~20 km southward into the lake. The effects of backflow on flow direction, water velocities and water levels propagate to virtually its upstream extremity. The current study represents a first attempt to explore backflow and causal factors for a highly dynamic floodplain lake system. An improved understanding of Poyang Lake backflow is critical for guiding future strategies to manage the lake, its water quality and ecosystem value, given proposals to modify the lake–river connectivity. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The transition from Alboran to Algerian basins (Western Mediterranean Sea): Chronostratigraphy,deep crustal structure and tectonic evolution at the rear of a narrow slab rollback system

The eastern Alboran basin and its transition to the Algerian basin is a key area in the Mediterranean realm where controversial kinematic and geodynamical models are proposed. Models imply striking differences regarding the nature of the crust, the prevalence of brittle faulting and ductile shear, the origin of magmatism, the style of Miocene deformation and the driving mechanisms of the Alboran plate kinematics. Combining a new chronostratigraphic chart of the Alboran and Algerian basins based on the Habibas (HBB-1) core drill, deep seismic sections striking WSW-ENE and SSE-NNW, and potential field data, we re-assess the tectonic evolution that controlled the sedimentation and basement deformation of the westernmost limit of the Algerian basin and its transition with the Alboran domain. A WSW-directed extensional tectonic phase has shaped a stretched continental crust with typical tilted blocks along ∼100 km from Burdigalian to Tortonian times, which is assumed to result from the WSW-directed migration of the Alboran block driven by a narrow slab rollback. In the Algerian basin, this event was followed by the emplacement of an oceanic-type crust. Potential field signatures of the deep basin as well as geometrical correlations with onland outcrops of inner zones suggest a minimum WSW-directed displacement of the Alboran terrane of ∼200 km. At the southern foot of the Algerian basin, the continent-ocean transition is sharp and may result from the westward propagation of a slab tear at depth, forming two segments of STEP (Subduction-Transform Edge Propagator) margins. Our results support models of intense shear tractions at the base of an overriding plate governed by slab rollback-induced mantle flow. Finally, Messinian salt tectonics affected overlying deposits until today. A late Tortonian to Quaternary dominantly transpressive tectonic episode linked to the Africa-Iberia convergence post-dates previous events, deforming the whole margin.