Fishing access agreements and harvesting decisions of host and distant water fishing nations

The declaration of exclusive economic zones (EEZs) granted coastal states sovereign rights over the marine resources in their EEZs and enabled developing coastal states to legally charge access fees to distant water fishing (DWF) nations for access to the resources in these waters. Despite the potential for economic gains, however, the ability of coastal states to benefit from the granting of sovereign rights and to ensure the sustainable use of their fisheries resources depends on how domestic fishing effort responds to the harvesting decisions of the DWF nations. We develop a stylized bioeconomic model to explore the change in fishing behavior of host and DWF nations when the two nations enter into an access agreement with varying levels of access fee. We further conduct an econometric analysis of changes in Pacific island nations’ harvesting behavior in response to the harvest decisions of DWF nations using data from the Western and Central Pacific tuna fishery. Our model results show that there is a range of variable access payment levels over which the host nation substitutes benefits from its domestic fishing activity with access payments from the DWF nation and that setting fees in this range can create a trap whereby host nations are forced to trade-off receiving a fair return to their fishery resources through access fees and retaining their own active fleet capacity. Our empirical analysis further shows a gradual shift in the way in which Pacific island host nations responded to the harvest decision of DWF nations as a result of the creation of the 200-nautical-mile EEZ.     

The exclusive economic zone: some perspectives

A brief presentation is made of the concept of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) adopted by the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, and included as a major feature of the Law of the Sea. The potential of the EEZ for the small developing island countries is discussed, together with the possibility of using the EEZ to achieve a larger measure of equity among nations than the prevailing one. The role of the EEZ in obtaining improved ocean governance, more sustainable management of the marine resources and control of marine pollution is considered. The need for building an indigenous capacity to deal with the marine resources and issues is identified and the possibility of achieving this through regional cooperation. The possibilities inherent in the EEZ regime for oceanic islands are discussed, with focus on the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean and the central Atlantic Ocean.     

Perspectives on effects-based management of New Zealand exclusive economic zone resources

Adoption of effects-based management, environmental effects-based management (EEM) or ‘learn as we go, is essential to open up access to all of New Zealand’s Maritime Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) resource base into the future. Utilising knowledge gained from ‘learn as we go’ and combining it with the integration of sectarian agendas and establishment of a central government EEZ agency empowered by an Act of Parliament will ensure future food and energy security is met. To achieve this integration of environmental effects management with security of access and stakeholder buy in is needed. Government hierarchies should not limit integration under EEM, policy should be non-separatist, and regions should be defined using ocean zoning. Future food and energy security can then be thought of in terms of environmental carrying capacity, moving away from regimes overly focussed on regulating for development. Ocean zoning could be used to assign property rights, with all activities subject to EEM regulation and enforcement of adaptive environmental standards through a central government EEZ Ocean Affairs agency. An overarching strategy to provide a framework guiding the development of New Zealand’s EEZ organisational infrastructure and decision making is needed to achieve this.     

Fisheries development in Vietnam: A case study in the exclusive economic zone

Pursuant to statement issued by the Government of Vietnam on 12 May 1977, on the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and the continental shelf of Vietnam, and according to the provisions of the LOS Convention, the EEZ of Vietnam extends principally up to 200 NM from the baseline, and the area of EEZ amounts to about one million square km including the Hoang Sa (Paracel) and Truong Sa (Spratly) Islands [The declaration of the Government of Vietnam on the territorial sea, contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone and continental shelf, Hanoi, 1977]. The establishment of EEZ has significantly changed circumstances for the fisheries sector in Vietnam.Recently, even though the adaptation of new techniques and technologies to the fisheries sector has been somewhat successful and resulted in the limitation of effective exploitation opportunities, sea fishing is still very important to the economy of Vietnam. In fact, fisheries development in Vietnam has the following important objectives, whether pursued in marine or fresh water: foreign exchange earnings; protein for local diets and feeds for live stock; provision of employment. However, a matter of concern is that the outdate fishing methods and uncontrolled fishing are damaging the marine environment and living resources. These problems have been recognized and courses of action have been formulated. A prerequisite condition for resolving this issue is to have a mechanism for synchronized policies which are guaranteed by appropriate macro management. The main purposes of this paper are a review of some aspects of fisheries sector development and management in Vietnam in the light of the new regime of the EEZ, represented in the LOS Convention. An important objective of the paper is the emphasis on the problem of policy-relevant research for fisheries sector management in the future.     

Developing community-derived indicators of economic status in the coral triangle: A management support tool

Environmental management initiatives commonly fail because of a lack of compliance from local communities, due largely to actual or perceived economic losses. Management should therefore aim to maintain or improve the economic status of local people. Development of economic performance criteria (EPC), as testable parameters through which changes in economic status can be identified, provide a mechanism for assessment of the economic impacts of management. Community perspectives of wealth, and potential applications for the design of locally relevant community-derived EPC were explored in a biodioverse and multicultural region within the coral triangle. A methodology is demonstrated for the development of locally relevant and locally comprehensible indicators. Household interviews and participatory wealth ranking exercises were conducted from which extensive socioeconomic data was generated to identify and test a series of potential EPC. An Economic Score (ES) was calculated and provided a simple mechanism for ‘at a glance’ spatial and temporal comparisons. Household income was used to verify EPC and ES. The participatory identification of EPC represents a novel tool with potential for application in the development of environmental management initiatives that aim to maintain ecological wealth and support sustainable resource utilisation, whilst maintaining or improving local economic status, and hence compliance.     

A collective approach to Pacific islands fisheries management: Moving beyond regional agreements

The sustainable management and profitable development of the Pacific island tuna fisheries is the key ocean governance challenge for the Pacific islands region in the short and medium term. Resolving these challenges is fundamental to the long term future of the region and its ability to implement oceans governance across all resource and conservation concerns.     

Marine conservation challenges in an era of economic crisis and geopolitical instability: The case of the Mediterranean Sea

In the Mediterranean Sea, socio-economic drivers may accelerate the process of exclusive economic zone (EEZ) declarations. Despite the challenges, the EEZ declarations may provide important opportunities for leveraging change to national policy towards the development of large-scale conservation of marine ecosystems and biodiversity in this zone. Using the Mediterranean Sea as a case study, we aim to highlight a set of best practices that will maximize the potential for the development of large-scale marine conservation initiatives. These include a range of approaches, such as using surrogates to fill the many biodiversity data gaps in the region, further the development of consistent and open access databases, and the utilization of technological developments to improve monitoring, research and surveillance of less accessible and under-explored marine areas. The integration of Mediterranean-wide and local conservation efforts, the facilitation of transboundary collaboration, and the establishment of regional funds for conservation will further enhance opportunities for marine conservation in this region.     

The disappearing right to navigational freedom in the exclusive economic zone

Navigational freedoms have been a central part of the law of the sea for hundreds of years, but significant restrictions have been imposed recently upon these freedoms. Fishing vessels are subject to the most restraints and, to protect their fish catch, must now give notice whenever they travel through the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of another country. Oil tankers, especially those with single hulls are also subject to a variety of restraints, and any ship with a dangerous cargo must conform to international, regional, and national regulations. Ships carrying ultrahazardous nuclear cargoes have been told by many countries to avoid their EEZs, and these ships have in fact picked routes designed to avoid most EEZs. Security concerns have increased dramatically during the past 2 years, and it has become almost commonplace for the major maritime and military powers to assert the right to stop and board merchant vessels to look for suspect cargoes in all parts of the oceans. Even military vessels, which have immunity from seizure, must nonetheless respect the many rules that have been established to protect the marine environment and the security of coastal populations. A new norm of customary international law appears to have emerged that allows coastal states to regulate navigation through their EEZ based on the nature of the ship and its cargo.It appears that it is no longer accurate to say that the freedom of navigation exists in the exclusive economic zone of other countries to the same extent that it exists on the high seas. The balance between navigation and other national interests continues to develop, and navigational freedoms appear to be disappearing during this evolutionary process.     

Introduction: military and intelligence gathering activities in the exclusive economic zones: consensus and disagreement II

Maritime issues have risen to the forefront of current security concerns. In particular, military and intelligence gathering activities in foreign exclusive economic zones (EEZ) remain controversial. Exacerbating factors include advancing military and intelligence technology, a growing dialectic between coastal States and maritime powers, and new threats like terrorism and weapons of mass destruction. The Honolulu Meeting was part of a Dialogue series on these issues. Topics covered included a summary of the Tokyo Meeting; recent incidents and developments; different perspectives; the proliferation security initiative; implications for the EEZ regime; key terms: range of interpretation; hydrographic surveys and scientific research: differences, overlaps and implications; draft guidelines for military and intelligence gathering in the EEZ; means and manner of implementation and enforcement of any agreed rules; and conclusions and the way forward.     

The exclusive economic zone : State claims and the LOS convention

The rapid acceptance of the exclusive economic (EEZ) concept belies the broad differences among State claims beyond 12 nautical miles, and the wide gulf between State practice and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOS Convention). This paper first examines the areas of contention between State practice and the LOS Convention. These differences are characterized and the author concludes that the EEZ regime within the Convention does not address the specific individual and regional needs of States that have resulted in the wide discrepancy among State claims. The author suggests a global authority under which the jurisdictional line would be redrawn along the practical level of coastal State to vessel, rather than the political plane of coastal State to flag State.     

The structure of tuna access agreements in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean: Lessons for Vessel Day Scheme planning

The tuna industry in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO) is one of the largest and most valuable fisheries in the world. Since the 1980s, Pacific island countries have used licensing agreements with foreign fishing interests—known as access agreements—to earn tuna-related revenue and control the environmental impacts of fishing, with only minimal success. To date, there has been little work detailing the structure of access agreements and assessing how this structure relates to economic and environmental outcomes in the sector. This article helps to fill this gap by providing an overview of various access structures and a detailed empirical assessment of how these structures are applied in access agreements between Pacific island countries and the major foreign fishing interests active in the WCPO. This analysis is placed in the context of evolving regional fisheries management structures. The study reveals that while there is no uniform formula for access agreements, each structure is subject to distinct political, economic and environmental considerations that influence outcomes for Pacific island countries. As Pacific island countries develop the mechanism to allocate fishing rights under the new Vessel Day Scheme, drawing on their long history with access agreements will assist efforts to use access to achieve policy objectives. Improved transparency will enable Pacific island countries to identify successes and problems and adapt the Vessel Day Scheme allocation mechanisms accordingly.     

无居民海岛资源环境承载力多目标规划模型初探

资源环境承载力是衡量无居民海岛发展是否可持续的重要标尺,在现有的承载力条件下如何设计合理的海岛规划方案,如何分配各资源环境成为海岛健康发展的关键。文章构建资源环境承载力多目标规划方法,以海岛旅游人口和经济总量最大化为目标,从资源、生态、环境的有限性或限制性作为模型约束条件,以期为海岛规划提供技术方法。     

Marine Geodesy (1975–1979)— to the International Association of Geodesy,Section 1

Abstract

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been developed during the last decade. Their land‐based applications range from land information management, urban planning, and environmental research to engineering design and management in the utility and oil industries, geological subsurface analysis, and others. However, applications of GIS in the marine environment are still in the initial stages. This may be due to, among other things, the large marine data sets, the demands of 3D data processing, and the difficulty of ocean data acquisition.

This article presents the result of the development of an integrated Marine Geographic Information System (MGIS) for the exploration and development of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the U.S. Pacific Islands region by the Pacific Mapping Center, University of Hawaii. Features such as spatial marine data processing, integration of GIS and mapping systems, 3D data structures, and simulation and animation of marine operations are developed and applied in this system. Since MGIS applications in EEZ are related to many disciplines in marine sciences and engineering, an operational MGIS should be an integrated system in which both basic GIS and marine application systems are combined into a single geo‐referenced system, In addition to other applications, this MGIS has been used: (1) to select a potential deep‐water research site off the island of Hawaii for the State of Hawaii Department of Business, Economic, and Development (DBED); (2) to generate a three‐dimensional database and use it for the navigation and simulation of underwater operations of an underwater research vehicle; and (3) to produce two 2° × 2° mosaic sheets of sonar images, which meet the USGS standard for a sonar image atlas.     

Wealth-based fisheries management and resource rent capture: An application to the Maldives marine fisheries

The economic value of marine fisheries can be measured by the resource rent that may potentially be earned, which represents a flow of real wealth for the community at large. For the island state of the Maldives we estimate that the resource rent that could be generated by the marine fisheries is in the order of $50 million per annum, constituting some 27% of the current value of landings. This rent is lost due to the de facto open-access nature of fishing. A wealth-based approach to fisheries management would seek to capture the rent, and the paper discusses the constraints and trade-offs that would be faced in applying this in the Maldivian context. We argue that such an approach is entirely consistent with the aim of the 7th National Development Plan which rightly emphasises the need to ensure the sustainability of marine resources for present and future generations.     

Potential conflict in the South China sea and environs

There are many territorial disputes in Asia — both on continental Asia and in the surrounding seas. These disputes are often extensions of wider ethnic, historical and ideological rivalries. A relatively new development in disputes over island territories and EEZ boundaries is the economic dimension that has been added to old disputes and rivalries: the disputing nations, aware of the benefits that offshore oil and minerals, as well as fishing, can provide to their economies, have a clear financial incentive to pursue their claims as strongly as they dare. National pride and wider political and ideological conflicts with their rival claimants further reduce the prospects for compromise. Tensions are increased by the possibility that a military conflict in pursuit of a claim could lead to escalation, drawing the USA and the USSR into the dispute. This article outlines some of the major tension points in the area of the South China Sea.     

Deep-sea Fe-Mn Crusts from the Northeast Atlantic Ocean: Composition and Resource Considerations

Eighteen deep-sea ferromanganese crusts (Fe-Mn crusts) from 10 seamounts in the northeast Atlantic were studied. Samples were recovered from water depths of ～1,200 to ～4,600 m from seamounts near Madeira, the Canary and Azores islands, and one sample from the western Mediterranean Sea.

The mineralogical and chemical compositions of the samples indicate that the crusts are typical continental margin, hydrogenetic Fe-Mn crusts. The Fe-Mn crusts exhibit a Co + Cu + Ni maximum of 0.96 wt%. Platinum-group element contents analyzed for five samples showed Pt contents from 153 to 512 ppb.

The resource potential of Fe-Mn crusts within and adjacent to the Portuguese Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is evaluated to be comparable to that of crusts in the central Pacific, indicating that these Atlantic deposits may be an important future resource.     

Rights-based management in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean tuna fishery: Economic and environmental change under the Vessel Day Scheme

Defining, strengthening and enforcing rights over fisheries resources is frequently identified as central to overcoming ‘the tragedy of the commons’ and associated environmental and economic challenges in fisheries systems. Though economic theory generally suggests that output control (e.g. quotas) creates the strongest incentives for efficiency and conservation, input controls (e.g. on effort) remain common. This paper explores the rationale for, and implications of, employing a transferable effort scheme in one of the largest and most valuable fisheries. In 2007, eight Pacific Island countries implemented the Vessel Day Scheme with the aims of strengthening their rights over tuna resources and control over economic and environmental trends. Four years since implementation, the scheme has significantly increased economic returns for the island states and generated improvements in data reporting. However, it has not generated a firm limit on fishing effort and its structure has made it difficult to directly target the biological concerns of individual species within the multi-species fishery. In the future, outcomes of the Vessel Day Scheme will continue to be tempered by the structural limitations of effort-based regulatory scheme, market conditions in the sector and the willingness of firms and island states to clarify, abide by and enforce the technical components of the scheme.     

基于DEMATEL-AHP模型的海岛绿色发展指数影响因子识别与评价

海岛绿色发展是保护海洋生态环境、建设海洋强国的重要途径和必然要求。本文提出海岛绿色发展指数（IGDI）概念,从能源消耗与资源利用、环境管理与治理、环境质量与安全、经济增长质量、绿色生活水平、公众满意度等6个方面选取22个指标构建海岛绿色发展指数评价指标体系,运用DEMATEL与AHP相结合的方法,对海岛绿色发展关键影响因子进行识别,并以12个海岛县（市、区）（以下简称“海岛县”）为例进行评价与分析。结果显示：（1）经济聚集程度（2.15）、单位GDP能耗（2.01）指标影响度大于2,环境污染治理投资占GDP比重、碳排放强度、生态损害和环境污染情况、岛陆开发程度、第三产业增加值比重、生活垃圾处理率等指标影响度均大于1,反映出环境管理与治理、能源消耗与资源利用、经济增长质量是决定海岛绿色发展成效的关键。（2）12个海岛县的海岛绿色发展指数评价值均值为74.37,其中嵊泗县的评价值最高（88.24）,崇明区的评价值最低（65.57）,反映出我国海岛绿色发展程度整体不高,海岛之间的绿色发展程度差异较大。（3）推动海岛绿色发展需坚持以人民为中心的发展思想,强化基于绿色发展理念的海岛综合管理,推动海岛产业绿色转型升级,实施海岛生态整治修复,提升海岛生态系统碳汇能力。     

Hydrographic surveying in the EEZ: differences and overlaps with marine scientific research

This paper reviews differences and overlaps between hydrographic surveying and marine scientific research in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), including the concept of military surveying. It concludes that recent trends with technology, the utility of hydrographic data and State practice suggest that hydrographic surveying in the EEZ should be under the jurisdiction of the coastal State. Paradoxically arguments for military surveys in the EEZ being outside coastal State jurisdiction appear stronger than those for hydrographic surveying. The paper offers some guidelines related to the conduct of hydrographic surveying in the EEZ.     

加拿大海洋-海岸带地质调查与"海底资源填图计划"

简要介绍了加拿大海洋－海岸带地质调查的推动力和基本经验，以及即将启动的“海底资源填图计划”（SeaMap)。加拿大海洋－海岸带地质调查强调多波束测深技术的应用、多学科的协作和数据库建设，SeaMap将对整个加拿大专署经济区进行综合填图。