Letters to the editor

Species composition and biomass of plankton samples taken on transects across an upwelling plume off Farewell Spit in February 1981 are presented. Copepods were numerically dominant, particularly Oithona similis and Paracalanus indicus. Also abundant were large phytoplankters (Chaetoceros sp. and Trichodesmium sp.), crustacean faecal pellets, and euphausiid larvae. The distribution of zooplankton species suggests mixing of inshore waters and neritic populations with upwelled waters. These data are discussed with respect to an interpretation of the upwelling system as a northwards transport of zooplankton and its enhanced productivity into the South Taranaki Bight.     

Letters to the editor

A preliminary scuba survey of oligotrophic Lake Rotoma in 1972 revealed a vegetation mainly composed of native hydrophytes in which exotics were at an early stage of colonisation. In 1973 the presence of species was recorded in 5708 quadrats (625 cm²) at 1 m intervals along a total of 50 line transects placed systematically around the lake. Water depth was measured, and quadrat cover and substrate type were subjectively estimated. Species frequency calculations showed that the dominant vegetation pattern was a characean meadow of Chara fibrosa f. acanthopitys (A.Br.) R.D.W., Nitella leptostachys var. leonhardii (R.D.W.) R.D.W., and N. pseudoflabellata var. mucosa (Nordst.) Bailey. The charophytes extended over a depth range of 1–17.5 m on a wide variety of substrates and gradients. Native vascular plants were absent from many transects, and had a depth range only from 0 to 4.5 m, with most occurring above 3.5 m. The Low Mixed Community, found in shallow water less than 1.25 m in depth at the northeast end of the lake, provided this area with a high species diversity. Exotic hydrophytes had established in many areas around the lake. The distribution of Lagarosiphon major (Ridley) Moss and Elodea canadensis Michx. appeared to coincide with boating access and fallen submerged trees over a depth range of 0–6.0 m, although much of the available habitat had not yet been exploited. Emergent species were most abundant within the southwest inlet and also in the lagoons surrounding the lake where sheltered conditions and shallow gradients prevail.     

Letters to the editor

Re: Kirby, D. S.; Abraham, E. R.; Uddstrom, M. J.; Dean, H. 2003: Tuna schools/aggregations in surface longline data 1993–98. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 37: 633–644.     

Liner shipping and information exchange—a European perspective

The European Commission (EC) is currently reviewing Council Regulation 4056/86, which includes the proposal by the European Liner Affairs Association (ELAA) to put in place a regulatory instrument for an information exchange system. The White Paper of the EC, issued in 2004, which provides a comprehensive discussion of the key issues including the ELAA proposal, is examined. The implications of the removal of Regulation 4056/86 and the application of this information exchange instrument in its place are studied. Arising from the protection afforded by antitrust immunity for nearly 100 years owners appear to have developed a fear of the unknown regarding an unregulated environment.     

In quest of an Arctic legal regime : Marine regionalism — a concept of international law evaluated

This article examines the regional approach as a solution to prevent marine pollution in the Arctic Ocean, which may result from land-based sources, offshore operations, and international shipping. It is argued that both the global and unilateral approach are inadequate to protect the polar sea appropriately — for the sake of its relatively untouched environment, the coastal areas of the Arctic states, and for the culture and life style of the indigenous inhabitants. Consequently, this essay assesses the status quo of international marine pollution control as established by conventions and other instruments and leads, after an outline of present regional treaties of the various marine regions, to an application of marine regionalism to the Arctic Ocean.     

Benthic macrofauna and productivity regimes in the Barents Sea — Ecological implications in a changing Arctic

Benthic faunal assemblages were analysed from 47 stations in the central and southern parts of the Barents Sea, together with sedimentary and water column parameters, daily ice records and modelled integrated primary productivity. Sampling spanned areas influenced by Atlantic Water (AW) to those lying under Arctic Water (ArW), and included stations with mixed water masses. Ice cover suppressed water column productivity in the northern areas. Three main faunal groups were identified, based on similarity of numerical faunal composition. The northern and southern faunal groups were separated by the northernmost penetration of AW in the bottom water and the third group, the Hopen group, was influenced by modified bank water. Faunal abundances were significantly higher within the southern faunal group relative to the northern group, but the numbers of taxa present were similar. The particularly rich fauna of the Hopen group reflected sediment heterogeneity and tight pelagic–benthic coupling. These results suggest that a retreat and thinning of the ice cover in the Barents Sea likely will result in the northern parts of the Barents Sea becoming more Atlantic in character, with a higher productivity at the sea floor.     

A fuzzy set theory approach to flagging out: towards a new Chinese shipping policy

The paper seeks to model the benefits and costs involved in the decision to flag out, and to provide arguments for alternative policies, aiming to counteract this age-long phenomenon. Based on the analysis of the evolution of worldwide and Chinese flagging out, the emphasis in the paper is on the comprehensive effect assessment of flagging out and the required adjustment of Chinese shipping policy. To identify the determinants of such an adjustment, the paper introduces fuzzy set theory and related models, aimed to assess the economic effects of flagging out through the use of context-dependent economic and societal indicators (factors). The degree to which such indicators contribute to the choice of flag decision is assessed through a questionnaire survey. In parallel, and in the context of the determinant analysis of fuzzy models, the paper probes into the ‘policy competition’ and ‘government intervention’ policies to counteract flagging out. In the same context, a comparative analysis of shipping policies between China and traditional maritime countries is undertaken, in order to assess the current ‘openness’ of the Chinese shipping policy and explore possible policy alternatives. The paper concludes that the preferred policy alternative for China would be the establishment of second international ship register.     

Predicting tsunami arrivals: Estimates and policy implications

Tsunami is one of a few kinds of natural disasters that leave people some time for escape. This escape time, which is essentially the time for the giant wave to propagate from the epicentre to a coast, has to be estimated without delay upon the occurrence of the incident. With the advancement of water wave theories, much work has been done to model the propagation of tsunamis from deep oceans to shallow water. The authors argue that while much emphasis has been put on the expansion of the high-tech early warning system and the development of complicated tsunami models, a simple-to-use yet accurate predictive model is still wanting. This paper presents a handy linear wave model, which is capable of estimating the arrival time of a tsunami with very good accuracy, as has been verified by comparison with past incidents. With the availability of such a simple model, even local communities without access to a high-tech warning system can readily estimate the time left for emergency evacuation.     

Greening international shipping through private governance: A case study of the Clean Shipping Project

This article aims to generate insights into both private governance and partnerships within the shipping industry, but also tries to improve understanding of the complex process of institutionalisation.This is achieved through a case study of the Clean Shipping Project, a public/private partnership that aims to promote sustainability in the shipping industry. A set of enabling and constraining factors are examined that shape the institutionalisation process and determine to what extent the Clean Shipping Project can establish and expand authority as an industry norm.Overall, the Clean Shipping Project cannot yet be considered a full-fledged private governance institution, because of an insufficient level of collaborative advantage mainly due to weak system robustness and unfavourable market characteristics and conditions. However, institutionalisation is an ongoing process and the future outlook for the Clean Shipping Project remains promising. The Clean Shipping Project is certainly a relevant supplement to existing regulations and there is a basic level of commitment and cohesion within the partnership, so it is not unlikely that in the future this initiative may help to uncouple growth in shipping activities from environmental harm.     

Oil and fishing — conflict in the North Sea

A programme of research is underway at Aberdeen University on the conflicts arising in the North Sea between the fishing and offshore oil and gas industries. This research note summarizes the work that has been undertaken to date and the main aspects on which future work will concentrate.     

Toxicity of Santa Barbara seep oil to starfish embryos: Part 2—the growth bioassay

The asteroid Patiria miniata was used to develop a static bioassay for various crude oil water-soluble fractions (WSF). The criterion used is the size of 48-h exposed embryos. The reasons for choosing this species and the growth criterion are discussed. Experiments show that the body length of 48-h exposed embryos is inversely proportional to hydrocarbon concentration of the WSF and the time of exposure. It is also shown that the toxicity of the WSF decreases with the age of the preparation and that the first 12 h following fertilisation are most sensitive to the effects of WSF.     

An experimental marine ecosystem response to crude oil and Corexit 9527: Part 2—Biological effects

Three experimental ecosystems were employed to test the effect of Corexit 9527, with and without Prudhoe Bay crude oil, on the ecology of a temperate pelagic ecosystem. The results indicated that Corexit 9527 alone enhanced biological productivity without changing the structure of the ecosystem. The mixture of Corexit and crude oil caused a major change in the ecology of the ecosystem which resulted in large numbers of bacteria and zooflagellates, but a depression of all other zooplankton phyla.