The Mid-Atlantic Ridge: structure at 45° N

Summary. A structural model of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 45° N is proposed on the basis of travel-time data, amplitudes and synthetic seismograms. The crustal structure seems to be similar to that in the FAMOUS area (Fowler). At the ridge axis there is an absorptive zone in the upper mantle, the depth below the seabed to the top of this zone being about 6 km. Away from the ridge axis there is a positive velocity gradient of about 0.04 to 0.05 km/(skm) in the top 5 to 8 km of the upper mantle. Shear waves propagate across the ridge axis, suggesting that there is no sizeable crustal magma chamber. The shear-wave velocity of the uppermost mantle is 4.35 km/s.     

Crustal structure of the Mid-Atlantic ridge crest at 37° N

Summary. A structural model of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 37° N is proposed on the basis of travel-time data and synthetic seismograms. At the ridge axis the crust is only 3 km thick and overlies material with an anomalously low'upper mantle'velocity of 7.2 km s⁻¹. Crustal thickening and the formation of layer 3 and a layer with velocity 7.2–7.3 km s⁻¹ takes place within a few kilometres of the axis, producing a 6–7 km thick crust by less than 10 km from the axis. A normal upper mantle velocity of 8.1 km s⁻¹ exists within 10 km of the axis. Shear waves propagate across the axis, thus precluding the existence of any sizeable magma chamber at shallow depth.     

A lower mantle S-wave triplication and the shear velocity structure of D"

Summary. A lower mantle S-wave triplication detected with short- and long-period WWSSN and CSN recordings indicates a substantial shear velocity discontinuity near 280 km above the core–mantle boundary. The triplication can be observed in rotated SH seismograms from intermediate and deep focus events throughout the distance range from 70° to 95°. Three distinct source region–receiver array combinations that have been investigated in detail demonstrate consistent travel time and relative amplitude behaviour of the triplication, with slight systematic shifts in the triplication indicating up to 40 km variations in the depth of the discontinuity. Modelling of the observations with synthetic seismograms produced with the Cagniard de Hoop and reflectivity methods constrains the shear velocity increase to be 235 ± 0.25 per cent, comparable to upper mantle discontinuities. Short-period observations indicate that the velocity increase may be a sharp first-order discontinuity, or may extend over a transition zone no more than 50 km thick. The shear velocity gradient below the discontinuity, within the D" layer, is not well-constrained by the SH data, but slightly positive or near zero velocity gradients are consistent with the long-period amplitude ratios of ScSH/SH .     

Determination of three-dimensional velocity structure from observations of refracted body waves

Summary. The computational effectiveness of travel-time inversion methods depends on the parameterization of a 3-D velocity structure. We divide a region of interest into a few layers and represent the perturbation of wave slowness in each layer by a series of Chebyshev polynomials. Then a relatively complex velocity structure can be dcscribed by a small set of parameters that can be accurately evaluated by a linearized inversion of travel-time residuals. This method has been applied to artificial and real data at small epicentral distances and in the teleseismic distance range. The corresponding matrix equations were solved using singular value decomposition. The results suggest that the method combines resolution with computational convenience.     

Shear-wave velocity structure for a spherically averaged earth

Summary. The shear-wave velocity distribution in a spherically averaged Earth is estimated statistically from previously published short-period S travel-time measurements (Uhrhammer). An algorithm is defined for integral inversion techniques which allows estimation of the variance of the velocity distribution from the uncertainties in the S slowness model. Comparisons are made between the resulting S -velocity solution and other solutions in common use. There are significant differences (at the 95 per cent confidence level) between the 5-velocity model determined here and the Jeffreys-Bullen model over the depth ranges of 150–550 km and 2100–2350 km. The 95 per cent confidence level in the present velocity distribution ranges from ± 0.025 km/s at 625 km to ±0.32km/s at 2766 km and averages about ±0.063 or ±1 percent.
Correlations between azimuthally dependent source and station adjustments (which were previously determined (Uhrhammer)) indicate widespread lateral inhomogeneities (up to 3.4 per cent) to depths of approximately 700 km. Up to three-quarters of the source adjustments are due to lateral velocity variations in the source regions. Station adjustments for differential 5 minus P times are significantly correlated with elevation and crustal age, but not with station instrumental magnification.     

The crustal structure beneath the northwest fjords, Iceland, from receiver functions and surface waves

Five broad-band seismic stations were operated in the northwest fjords area of Iceland from 1996 to 1998 as part of the Iceland Hotspot project. The structures of the upper 35  km or so beneath these stations were determined by the modelling and joint inversion of receiver functions and regional surface wave phase velocities. More than 40 teleseismic events and a few regional events containing high-quality surface wave trains were used. Although the middle period passband of the seismograms is corrupted by oceanic microseismic noise, which hinders the interpretation of structural details, the inversions reveal the overall features. Many profiles obtained exhibit large velocity gradients in the upper 5  km or so, smaller zero gradients below this, and, at ~23  km depth, a zone 2–4  km thick with higher velocity gradients. The two shallower intervals are fairly consistent with the 'upper' and 'lower' crust, defined by Flovenz (1980 ). The deep zone of enhanced velocity gradient seems to correspond to the sharp reflector first reported by Bjarnason et al . (1993 ) and identified by them as the 'Moho'. However, this type of structure is not ubiquitous beneath the northwest fjords area. The distinctiveness of the three intervals is variable, and in some cases a structure with velocity gradient increasing smoothly with depth is observed. We term these two end-members structures of the first and second types respectively. Structures of the second type correlate with older areas. Substantial variation in fundamental structure is to be expected in Iceland because of the great geological heterogeneity there.     

Joint inversion of receiver function and surface wave dispersion observations

We implement a method to invert jointly teleseismic P wave receiver functions and surface wave group and phase velocities for a mutually consistent estimate of earth structure. Receiver functions are primarily sensitive to shear wave velocity contrasts and vertical traveltimes, and surface wave dispersion measurements are sensitive to vertical shear wave velocity averages. Their combination may bridge resolution gaps associated with each individual data set. We formulate a linearized shear velocity inversion that is solved using a damped leastsquares scheme that incorporates a priori smoothness constraints for velocities in adjacent layers. The data sets are equalized for the number of data points and physical units in the inversion process. The combination of information produces a relatively simple model with a minimal number of sharp velocity contrasts. We illustrate the approach using noisefree and realistic noise simulations and conclude with an inversion of observations from the Saudi Arabian Shield. Inversion results for station SODA, located in the Arabian Shield, include a crust with a sharp gradient near the surface (shear velocity changing from 1.8 to 3.5 km s¹ in 3 km) underlain by a 5kmthick layer with a shear velocity of 3.5 km s¹ and a 27kmthick layer with a shear velocity of 3.8 km s¹, and an upper mantle with an average shear velocity of 4.7 km s¹. The crustmantle transition has a significant gradient, with velocity values varying from 3.8 to 4.7 km s¹ between 35 and 40 km depth. Our results are compatible with independent inversions for crustal structure using refraction data.     

Upper mantle structure beneath the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of the Azores based on observations of compressional wave

Summary. Four seismic refraction profiles have been interpreted which serve to indicate the structure of the lithosphere near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge close to the Azores. An east–west profile which crosses the ridge axis yields a crustal structure. Although energy is propagated across the ridge axis within the crust the axial region marks a clear barrier to propagation within the mantle. A profile parallel to the axis (4 my isochron) shows, below a 7.6 km/s layer, a low-velocity zone underlain by an 8.3 km/s refractor 9 km below the sea bed. On profies normal to the ridge axis higher velocities, which are observed on lines shot towards the ridge, can be attributed to this refractor if it has a dip of several degrees away from the ridge. On another profile parallel to the axis (9 my isochron) a velocity of about 8.3 km/s is only found to exist much deeper at about 30 km depth. These observations are interpreted in the light of seismic refraction results recently obtained by Lewis & Snydsman and of quantitative petrological models, such as that of Bottinga & Allègre. A velocity model based on Bottinga & Allègre's model allows us to understand our results qualitatively. In particular the two 8.3 km/s refractors at 9 and 30 km depth correspond to two different residual peridotite layers. The upper layer contains 1.5–2 wt per cent water and as the lithosphere moves away from the ridge axis the temperature in this layer becomes low enough to start hydration reactions. These cause the low-velocity zone observed at 4 my and the total disappearance of the shallow level refractor before 9 my.     

Seismic structure of the upper mantle beneath the United States by three-dimensional inversion of body wave arrival times

Summary. Teleseismic P and S arrival times to North American stations are obtained from the ISC bulletins for the 10-yr period 1964–73, and relative travel-time delays are calculated with respect to standard tables. Station anomalies as well as variations of the delays with azimuth and epicentral distance from station are analysed, and the location of the velocity anomalies responsible for them is discussed. Inversion of the P delays to infer upper mantle velocity structure down to a depth of 700 km is obtained using three-dimensional blocks, as proposed by Aki, Christofferson & Husebye. Three layers can be resolved in this depth range. It is found that the heterogeneities responsible for the travel-time delays are primarily located in the first 250 km of the upper mantle, and that they correlate with surface features. Significant heterogeneities subsist to depths of at least 700 km and their broad scale pattern also correlates with the surface features: in the third layer (500 to 700 km depth) there is an increase of velocity from the West to the East of the United States, while the second layer (250 to 450 km depth) exhibits a reversed pattern. A tentative interpretation of these deeper anomalies is made, as being due mainly to topography of the major upper mantle discontinuities, near 400 and 650 km depth.     

Seismic anisotropy within the uppermost mantle of southern Germany

This paper presents an updated interpretation of seismic anisotropy within the uppermost mantle of southern Germany. The dense network of reversed and crossing refraction profiles in this area made it possible to observe almost 900 traveltimes of the P_n phase that could be effectively used in a time-term analysis to determine horizontal velocity distribution immediately below the Moho. For 12 crossing profiles, amplitude ratios of the P_n phase compared to the dominant crustal phase were utilized to resolve azimuthally dependent velocity gradients with depth. A P -wave anisotropy of 3–4 per cent in a horizontal plane immediately below the Moho at a depth of 30 km, increasing to 11 per cent at a depth of 40 km, was determined. For the axis of the highest velocity of about 8.03 km s⁻¹ at a depth of 30 km a direction of N31°F was obtained. The azimuthal dependence of the observed P_n amplitude is explained by an azimuth-dependent sub-Moho velocity gradient decreasing from 0.06 s⁻¹ in the fast direction to 0 s⁻¹ in the slow direction of horizontal P -wave velocity. From the seismic results in this study a petrological model suggesting a change of modal composition and percentage of oriented olivine with depth was derived.     

Velocity structure of upper-mantle transition zones beneath central eurasia from seismic inversion using genetic algorithms

We present velocity constraints for the upper-mantle transition zones beneath Central Siberia based on observations of the 1982 RIFT Deep Seismic Sounding (DSS) profile. The data consist of seismic recordings of a nuclear explosion in north-western Siberia along a 2600 km long seismic profile extending from the Yamal Peninsula to Lake Baikal. We invert seismic data from the mantle transition zones using a non-linear inversion scheme using a genetic algorithm for optimization and the WKBJ method to compute the synthetic seismograms. A statistical error analysis using a graph-binning technique was performed to provide uncertainty values in the velocity models.
Our best model for the upper-mantle velocity discontinuity near 410 km depth has a two-stage velocity-gradient structure, with velocities increasing from 8.70–9.25 km s⁻¹ over a depth range of 400–415 km, a gradient of 0.0433 s⁻¹, and from 9.25–9.60 km s⁻¹ over a depth range of 415–435 km, a gradient of 0.0175 s⁻¹. This derived model is consistent with other seismological observations and mineral-physics models. The model for the velocity discontinuity near 660 km depth is simple, sharp and includes velocities increasing from 10.15 km s⁻¹ at 655 km depth to 10.70 km s⁻¹ at 660 km depth, a gradient of 0.055 s⁻¹.     

A comparison of the upper-mantle structure beneath Eurasia and the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans

Summary. A travel-time curve for P seismic waves recorded at NORSAR from earthquakes in the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans is of a significantly different character from those for rays bottoming under western Russia and southeast and central Europe. The differences arise principally from variations in the outer 200–300 km of the three regions and from the apparently anomalous nature of the velocity distribution between 300 and 500km beneath southern and central Europe. Extremal 'tau' inversion is extended to the calculation of bounds on vertical transit time for different depth ranges beneath the three regions. A maximum difference of 5 s is permitted by the bounds in the two-way vertical transit times of P waves between 50 and 800 km below western Russia and the oceans. The bounds obtained on transit times between 300 and 800 km demand no significant difference between the two regions and permit a maximum difference of 2.5 s in two-way transit time. This is consistent with the observation that the oceanic travel-time curve may be fitted to within observational error by a model which is substantially the same as that for western Russia below 300 km.     

A three-dimensional radially anisotropic model of shear velocity in the whole mantle

We present a 3-D radially anisotropic S velocity model of the whole mantle (SAW642AN), obtained using a large three component surface and body waveform data set and an iterative inversion for structure and source parameters based on Non-linear Asymptotic Coupling Theory (NACT). The model is parametrized in level 4 spherical splines, which have a spacing of ∼ 8°. The model shows a link between mantle flow and anisotropy in a variety of depth ranges. In the uppermost mantle, we confirm observations of regions with   V_SH > V_SV   starting at ∼80 km under oceanic regions and ∼200 km under stable continental lithosphere, suggesting horizontal flow beneath the lithosphere. We also observe a   V_SV > V_SH   signature at ∼150–300 km depth beneath major ridge systems with amplitude correlated with spreading rate for fast-spreading segments. In the transition zone (400–700 km depth), regions of subducted slab material are associated with   V_SV > V_SH   , while the ridge signal decreases. While the mid-mantle has lower amplitude anisotropy (<1 per cent), we also confirm the observation of radially symmetric   V_SH > V_SV   in the lowermost 300 km, which appears to be a robust conclusion, despite an error in our previous paper which has been corrected here. The 3-D deviations from this signature are associated with the large-scale low-velocity superplumes under the central Pacific and Africa, suggesting that   V_SH > V_SV   is generated in the predominant horizontal flow of a mechanical boundary layer, with a change in signature related to transition to upwelling at the superplumes.     

Morphological characteristics, formation and glaciological significance of Rogen moraine in northern Scotland

Rogen moraine are enigmatic landforms whose exact origin is still debated. We use NEXTMap digital surface models and aerial photographs to map the distribution of previously unreported fields of Rogen moraine in the vicinity of Loch Shin, northern Scotland. Existing models of formation are tested against detailed morphological Rogen moraine characteristics obtained from the remote sensing data and field observations. Detailed morphometric analyses combined with their geographical setting lead us to postulate a likely mechanism of formation. Rogen moraine appear to have formed in areas where there were strong basal ice-flow velocity gradients. Thrusting by compression, or fracturing by extension of preexisting partially frozen sediment probably occurred in these areas, resulting in Rogen moraine formation. A general down-ice increase in ridge crest spacing suggests that the latter process may have been dominant, and is consistent with the location of Rogen moraine in the lee of topographic obstructions, in areas that experienced overall extensional ice flow. We also suggest that at least one field of Rogen moraine formed where lateral basal ice-flow velocity gradients were strongest — possibly in a subglacial shear margin setting. Given their location, the landforms may be consistent with formation during headward scavenging of the Moray Firth palaeo-ice stream into a shrinking core of cold-based ice.     

Crustal structure of Atlantic fracture zones–II. The Vema fracture zone and transverse ridge

Summary. The crustal structure beneath the Vema fracture zone and its flanking transverse ridge was determined from seismic refraction profiles along the fracture zone valley and across the ridge. Relatively normal oceanic crust, but with an upwarped seismic Moho, was found under the transverse ridge. We suggest that the transverse ridge represents a portion of tectonically uplifted crust without a major root or zone of serpentinite diapirism beneath it. A region of anomalous crust associated with the fracture zone itself extends about 20 km to either side of the central fault, gradually decreasing in thickness as the fracture zone is approached. There is evidence to suggest that the thinnest crust is found beneath the edges of the 20 km wide fracture zone valley. Under the fracture zone valley the crust is generally thinner than normal oceanic crust and is also highly anomalous in its velocity structure. Seismic layer 3 is absent, and the seismic velocities are lower than normal. The absence of layer 3 indicates that normal magmatic accretionary processes are considerably modified in the vicinity of the transform fault. The low velocities are probably caused by the accumulation of rubble and talus and by the extensive faulting and fracturing associated with the transform fault. This same fracturing allows water to penetrate through the crust, and the apparently somewhat thicker crust beneath the central part of the fracture zone valley may be explained by the resultant serpentinization having depressed the seismic Moho below its original depth.     

Upper mantle heterogeneities beneath Central Europe

Summary. An inversion of ISC travel-time data from selected earthquakes in the distance range 30°-90° to 53 stations in Central Europe has been used to model velocity down to 600 km depth. The model explains 0.1–0.2s of the residuals, as for other array studies, leaving 0.5 s unexplained as noise. The uppermost 100 km of the mantle and crust contains inhomogeneities that correlate remarkably well with the geology. This may be due to deep-seated thermal anomalies or, in some areas, to delays introduced by passage of the rays through sedimentary cover. The deeper anomalies are smaller and unrelated to those in the lithosphere, which suggests that the asthenosphere is decoupled from the rigid lithosphere. The structure at 600 km depth is again quite inhomogeneous and might be due to undulations of the 650 km discontinuity. The models show some suggestion of a high velocity slab trending from east to west beneath the Alps.     

Lateral variations of S velocity in the upper mantle from higher Rayleigh modes

Summary. The generalized inverse theory has been applied to interpret several sets of higher mode data, previously obtained for the United States and the Pacific Ocean. The depth-resolving power of these data allows us to find the distribution of S velocity down to about 600 km. The main lateral variations of S velocity are found in the uppermost 250 km, the south-western United States showing the lowest velocities and the central-north-eastern United States the highest velocities. Between 250 and 500 km an opposite situation seems to occur, western velocities being the greatest ones, but these lateral variations are 3 to 5 times less than above and they cannot be surely established under the variance estimated for the data. Finally no lateral variations are resolved between 500 and 700 km. Some remarks may be made about the corresponding absolute models: (1) the agreement is good with published models, built with the fundamental mode alone; (2) the slight lowvelocity zone which is not required when inverting the fundamental mode alone in the central and north-eastern United States, is required when highermode data are added; (3) a rather strong increase of the S -velocity gradient is found near 360 km depth, both for the average data across the United States and the Pacific Ocean.     

Oceanic crustal structure—Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 45° N

Summary. We present a velocity—depth model for the crust beneath the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 45° N which is derived from a comparison of waveforms corresponding to observed and synthetic seismograms. The model which best fits the observations includes a high-velocity layer at the base of the crust (layer 3B) and a velocity gradient in the upper mantle. These results are in agreement with other recent seismic studies on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and indicate that the velocity structure is more complex than that obtained from travel-time analysis. There is no evidence for a low-velocity zone at the base of the crust.     

Small-scale instabilities below the cooling oceanic lithosphere

Interpretation of satellite altimetry data as well as ship bathymetry data revealed strongly elongated anomalies roughly perpendicular to the mid-ocean ridges in the Indian and east Pacific oceans. A spectral analysis of gravity altimetry data along profiles parallel to the East Pacific Rise indicated wavelengths of about 150–180  km close to the ridge and about 250  km further away. A simple model of Rayleigh–Taylor instabilities developing at the base of the cooling lithosphere is discussed and applied to the data. By considering thermal diffusion and comparing Rayleigh–Taylor growth rates to the velocity of the thermal front in the cooling lithosphere, we are able to explain the observed anomalies by instabilities developing below the lithosphere in a layer with a viscosity of about 10¹⁹  Pa  s above an asthenospheric layer with a viscosity reduction of 2–3 orders of magnitude.     

A long-range seismic profile in Southeastern Australia

Summary. Nine portable seismic stations deployed across the Western Plains of New South Wales recorded signals in the distance range 250–1000 km from large timed explosions at both ends of the line. A velocity—depth model derived from the travel-time data has the following features: a two-layer crust with a thickness of 35 km; a sub-Moho velocity of 7.98 km/s; an abrupt increase to 8.36 km/s at 100 km depth; a further step to 8.72 km/s at 190 km depth, with a low-velocity channel immediately above the discontinuity. The model has several features in common with others derived from long-range profiles in Australia and elsewhere. The data, however, provide the first suggestion of a low P -velocity channel in Eastern Australia.