The political economy and geopolitical context of India's economic crisis, 1990–91

The Indian economy suffered a balance of payment crisis in 1991, which provided the context for the rolling out of neoliberal policies, also referred to as the New Economic Policy in India. This paper examines the national and global causes and context of India's economic crisis and adoption of neoliberal policies. While grounding my analysis in historical‐geographical materialism, I argue that India's economic crisis was a product of certain contingent conditions. I draw attention to India's pre‐neoliberal economic regime and analyse how the earlier‐established relationship between revenue generation and expenditure ran into trouble; what changes occurred in the organization and management of revenues and capital; nature of interventions of the state in the circulation of capital; changes in the physical aspects of circulation of commodities, together with foreign trade and the formation of the ‘world market’; and the rise of the United States as the only global superpower. I conclude that India's economic crisis of 1990–91, and the neoliberal policies that followed, are products of contingent historical and geographical conditions. A teleological approach towards examining global capitalism and production of economic crisis often neglect such contingencies and provide a set of causalities that may, at best, be classified as incomplete.     

Spatial Glocalization in Asia-Pacific Hub Port Cities: A Comparison of Hong Kong and Singapore

Port competition at both the regional and global scales results in port concentration and deconcentration, respectively. Whereas a number of recent studies interpret such phenomena as the effects of global forces such as containerization, few researchers have investigated local forces, such as the evolving relationships between urban policy and port growth. This study compares how two global hub port cities in the Asia-Pacific region, Hong Kong and Singapore, have sustained their port functions while transforming into major economic centers. Entropy indexes are calculated by district based on service industries related to port activities between 1993 and 2004. The results show the influences of port competition, lack of space, and congestion on changes in port-related activities. We conclude that cross-border integration is a main differentiating factor in the evolution of these hub port cities.     

中国经济权力空间格局演化研究——基于国家间相互依存的敏感性与脆弱性分析

在全球化时代,地缘政治逻辑发生了变化,不对称相互依存替代军事实力成为国家权力的重要来源,在此背景下和平崛起的中国正在以经济实力改写世界政治版图。本文基于国家间相互依存理论,利用双边贸易数据分析中国与世界各国经济相互依存的非对称性,以此构建中国经济权力评价模型,研究中国崛起过程中经济权力的空间演变格局。主要结论为：① 中国对外贸易的地理分布明显呈现由过度集中于东亚、西欧和北美的三极格局向更加均衡格局转变,但全球对华贸易依存度最高的国家依然集中在低纬度的亚非拉地区;② 世界各国对中国的贸易高敏感区呈现出由亚太向非洲、拉美地区推进的趋势,而高脆弱区域则呈现出由点状散布向连片生长转变的趋势;③ 中国经济权力空间已由周边扩展至全球,并向发达世界渗透,而同时期美国经济权力空间却呈现收缩趋势。     

Competition and co-operation in the semi-periphery: closer economic partnership and sectoral transformations in Chile and New Zealand

The signing of a strategic economic partnership (the Trans-Pacific SEP or P4) between Chile, New Zealand, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam in 2005 reveals the emergence of a new generation of trade agreements that seek to promote longer-term synergies and cooperation. This is in marked contrast with a purely competitive, market-based model of agreements whereby economies are opened up to oligopsonistic capital. The orientation is clearly more neostructural and strategic in construction, emphasizing the opportunities within the global economy of improved relations with similarly positioned economies within the semi-periphery. This article analyses both the basis for and implications of the P4 for Chile and New Zealand by looking at three sectors in which both countries are competitive in export markets: dairy, wine and fisheries. By assessing similarities and differences, and the ways in which competition or co-operation might be established, the potential impacts of the agreement can be posited. Within a global context of bilateral and multilateral commercial agreements, it is this type of agreement that perhaps best fits the needs of smaller economies in the periphery that seek to establish greater competitive space for their exports in core economies without engaging in a mutually destructive war of competition in similar sectors and products.     

中国海港空间效应的识别与测度

在全球化和世界产业转移浪潮推动下,沿海港口已成为全球生产链条与地方网络链接的地理枢纽。与此同时,港口发展演化在推动港口自身运输体系及港口空间演化的同时,对腹地经济发展产生重大影响。首先,从经济地理学视角,提出海港空间效应的概念及其内涵,从港口势能、港—腹引力、作用通道三个方面阐述海港空间效应的动力结构和形成要素。其次,以海港空间效应的动力结构为理论依据,建立海港空间效应的测度模型。最后,以我国东部沿海港口为研究样本,运用海港空间效应测度模型,得到海港空间效应指数。以港口吞吐量、集装箱吞吐量、外贸吞吐量为指标表征沿海港口对腹地的运输效应分布格局,以港口城市工业、对外贸易和金融指标表征沿海港口对腹地的非运输效应格局,对不同区域特点和差异进行比较分析,验证模型的准确性和可操作性。结果表明,模型可较好地从宏观尺度识别不同港口及其腹地的港口经济空间效应,对于揭示港口的区位本质,比较不同区域的临港化倾向,刻画港口—腹地型城市地域系统的空间联系具有指导意义。     

Beyond the 'Outer Crescent': the Mackinder century in New Zealand geopolitics

This paper proposes that, although Mackinder never mentions New Zealand in his influential 1904 paper and despite the absence of a formal Kiwi geopolitical tradition, 'The geographical pivot of history' provides a useful framework with which to approach New Zealand geopolitics. The argument uses two Mackinderian ideas to suggest three phases in New Zealand's security relationships during the Mackinder century. First, New Zealand's commitment to Mackinder's 'pivot area' notion of 'imperial defence' and 'collective security' characterized its dependent security phase. Between 1973 and 1990/91 there was a transitional security phase towards Mackinder's second 'global interconnectedness' idea. Third, this shift led to a current interdependent security phase which is characterized by the recognition that New Zealand's security relationships, despite its geographic isolation, are mutually dependent on political, economic, and military events around the world. The impact of 11 September 2001 and the consequent 'war on terror' are also considered. The paper concludes by suggesting that New Zealand's post-conflict reconstruction efforts in Afghanistan and Iraq point to the continuing relevance of Mackinder's 'The geographical pivot of history' to New Zealand geopolitics.     

New Zealand Census 2013: A short commentary on the role which the Census plays and the findings of the 2013 Census

This short paper aims to discuss the role and the importance of the Census in New Zealand. It also discusses some of the multitude of uses of Census data in various contexts to help us understand the demographic and socio‐economic landscape of New Zealand. Debates internationally on the nature, scale and frequency of a national Census, or even whether a Census is necessary at all, mean that we cannot take this valuable resource for granted. With this in mind, we as geographers have a wealth of data to explore and analyse that we should take full advantage of. What gets counted counts!     

长江中游港口腹地演变及港口-腹地经济协调发展研究

运用场强模型计算2001年以来长江中游主要港口的场强值,分析长江中游港口腹地演变特征及趋势,参照钱纳里多国模型划分腹地经济的发展阶段,运用协调发展度和相对发展度模型对处于不同经济发展阶段的腹地与其所属港口的协调关系进行评价,从而把长江中游港口-腹地隶属关系和协调关系纳入统一的研究框架。研究表明：2001年以来长江中游主要港口的场强在递增的同时区域异质性不断扩大。各港口腹地范围差异显著,但总体空间格局变化不显著,且港口腹地演变呈现扩大、缩小和趋于稳定3种态势。港口与腹地的综合协调关系整体处于港口发展滞后于腹地经济发展的磨合阶段,且表现出显著的空间分异特征;经济发展阶段、产业结构、自然条件、交通运输等因素对各港口与腹地经济的协调关系产生不同程度的影响。     

明代朝贡贸易体制下澳门的兴起及其与广州的关系

明中后期澳门的兴起既是历史选择的一次偶然,也是明代特殊海外贸易政策下的必然结果。文章从明代朝贡贸易和市舶司制度的兴衰入手,探讨澳门兴起的动力机制和主要影响因素,特别是在澳门兴起过程中广州所起的作用以及两者的经济互动。同时,基于明代全国视角下的海外贸易与港口分布的总体格局,综合分析澳门、广州以及隆庆以后的月港这3个在明代后期开放的港口,探讨三者在功能、性质、贸易对象等方面的异同点,进一步论证澳门的兴起在很大程度上受益于明代朝贡贸易体制对海外贸易和港口发展的束缚。正是由于广州在明代后期对外通商的垄断性和不完整性,澳门才能以广州外港的性质互补,从而成为当时最大的东西方国际贸易体系之枢纽。     

Resilience and finances on Aotearoa New Zealand farms: Evidence from a random survey on the sources and uses of debt

Debt and income are keystones to financial resilience on New Zealand farms. This article utilises a survey on finance to assess farm financial health using a new model of resilience. It shows the majority of farms are financially strong. Further borrowing and development are possible. With increasing variability resulting from the longer term trade liberalisation as well as global warming impacts, the high equity will provide future resilience. On the other hand, profit levels are not high relative to the investment, but this has been the case for decades and has not caused problems due to farmer and farm family resilience.     

Development characteristics and construction prospects for a multi-integrated economic zone in the South China Sea Region

The Belt and Road Initiative(BRI)instigated by China is catalyzing the evolution of a new global economic landscape.To cope with the great changes in the economic landscape,China needs to view the South China Sea Region(SCSR)as a strategic focus and study carefully the characteristics of regional development and explore the possibility for construc-tion of a strategic multi-integrated economic zone which includes China and ASEAN countries.Based on key indicators,this paper outlines the overall development characteristics of the SCSR and analyzes the regional structural characteristics of industry and global trade based on the indexes of industrial structure similarity and trade commodity structure coincidence;the paper also depicts the spatial characteristics of the nine core growth areas(CGAs)in the region and discusses the construction prospects for a multi-integrated economic zone in the SCSR.The results show that,first,from 2000 to 2017,the main economic indicators of the SCSR grew quite well,and the development trend was much better than the global average for the same period.Second,driven by the global industrial transfer stages and spatial paths,the level of comprehensive development in the SCSR has evolved into four categories.Third,the index values for industrial structure similarity and trade commodity structure coincidence for the 11 countries in the SCSR have remained at a high level,and reveal an integration trend not only from the horizontal and vertical perspective,but also from an upgrading and downgrading standpoint.Fourth,nine CGAs have been established in the SCSR and the advantaged industries and the export commodity types between different countries exhibited the characteristics of convergence and complementarity due to the polarization and diffusion effects of the CGAs.Finally,from a long-term perspective,the SCSR has already acquired the internal and external conditions such as the 5th global industrial transfer initiative,the reconstruction of the global value chain,regional production-consumption networks and spa-tial entities for building a multi-integrated economic zone in the SCSR.     

Lessons for New Zealand from Britain's Foot and Mouth Epidemic

This paper explores some implications for New Zealand's rural community of Britain's foot and mouth epidemic in the light of growing international trade and travel, and changes in New Zealand's rural society. The paper includes ecological mapping with a projected/likely spatial distribution of an epidemic in New Zealand, and an assessment of the possible institutional and social responses in the wake of a disease outbreak. It notes the course of the epidemic in Britain, and possible differences and similarities in institutional response frameworks between Britain and New Zealand.     

集装箱港口体系的演化模式研究--长江下游集装箱港口体系的实证分析

系统介绍Ｙ．海斯的集装箱港口体系演化模式,对长江下游集装箱港口体系的演化过程进行了科学实证。认为：该集装箱港口体系已经经历了初始,扩散两个阶段,现正处于集中阶段的初期,今后１０年该集装箱港口体系将迅速完成集中化过程,从而进入枢纽中心阶段。     

基于消费责任制的碳排放核算及全球环境压力

因区域间贸易而转移的碳排放对于全球各个国家或者地区的碳排放核算及其减排责任划分具有重要而深远的影响。通过构建多区域投入产出分析模型和基于扩展的STIRPAT模型,本文核算了全球39个主要国家基于消费责任制的碳排放,并在此基础上深入探讨了全球环境压力的影响因素问题。研究发现：首先,从以净流出为主的中国和俄罗斯来看,尽管贸易给这些地区带来了大量的资源,但随之会产生严重的区域生态环境问题。而对于美国和欧盟等地区来说,这些国家或者地区通过全球贸易规避了大量的碳减排责任。此外,在全球贸易中,区域净流出的贸易隐含碳排放越小,基于消费责任制核算的区域碳排放量就越大,故而在全球减排目标分配中承担的减排任务也需相应地增加。全球贸易隐含碳排放净流出量较大的地区主要位于亚洲和东欧等地,而净流出量最小的地区主要是以西欧和北美等高度发达的经济体为主。其次,就基于消费责任制核算下的全球环境压力而言,人口因素和富裕程度是导致全球环境压力不断增加的两个重要因素,而提高生产技术水平以及逐渐提高清洁能源在总能源消费中的比重是推动全球节能减排、缓解全球环境压力的有效途径。     

满洲里对俄罗斯经贸合作现状、问题与前景

满洲里作为中国内陆主要边境口岸之一，发展满洲里对俄罗斯的经贸发展不但推进了中俄经贸关系健康稳定的发展，而且还具有睦邻、富民与兴边的重要作用。本文从时空角度对满洲里开展对俄经贸合作的历史基础、区位条件及规划措施进行了实证研究，探讨了满洲里对俄经贸合作的现存问题，并提出促进双方经贸发展的建议和对策。     

Contested and congested spaces: Exploring authenticity in New Zealand farmers' markets

This paper considers issues of authenticity as they apply to the evolution of farmers' markets in New Zealand. Following a discussion of the nature of authenticity and its deployment by farmers' market organisations in several jurisdictions, a two‐part case study is presented. An analysis of the strategies adopted by Farmers' Markets New Zealand to ‘protect its brand’ nationally and an examination of the disputation of authenticity in the Marlborough Farmers' Market reveals the potential of the ‘authenticity project’ to be a lightning rod for heightened tension and the fracturing of the relationship between competing interests in New Zealand farmers' markets.     

Accessibility to food retailers and socio‐economic deprivation in urban New Zealand

The spatial locations of food retailers are considered to be an influential aspect of population consumption patterns. Such contextual relationships are often related to socio‐economic deprivation, with disparities in accessibility having important implications. This study used Geographic Information Systems and an Enhanced Two‐Step Floating Catchment Area model of spatial accessibility to further understand such relationships within urban areas of New Zealand. Findings, while mixed, indicate that there is generally increased accessibility to all food retailers in highly deprived areas. Understanding these socio–spatial relationships in local environments has important implications for policy initiatives, health outcomes and sustainable development.     

全球食物供给非均衡性演变及贸易影响

降低食物供给的非均衡性是实现“零饥饿”的重要途径。论文在分析1986—2018年全球食物生产时空演变特征的基础上,基于洛伦兹曲线和锡尔系数,对全球与区域食物生产非均衡性及贸易影响进行了测度。结果表明：(1) 1986—2018年,全球各类食物产量均呈增加趋势,产出结构发生了显著变化,谷物在植物性食物中的比重减小,油料、蔬菜和水果所占比重增加。不同区域和国家食物营养来源具有显著差异,且尺度越小,差异越大。(2)谷物、糖料和水果生产的集中程度相对较低,蔬菜、油料、薯类、水产品生产集中程度较高。豆类、蔬菜、油料、糖料和嗜好类人均产量非均衡性呈增加趋势,薯类、水果、畜禽类和水产品的人均产量非均衡性呈降低趋势。人均热量产出非均衡较低,脂肪和蛋白质产出的非均衡性较高。(3)贸易对全球人均食物及营养供给的非均衡性具有显著的降低作用,且其影响程度逐年增加。贸易对糖类、油料和嗜好类非均衡性降低作用最显著,对脂肪供给非均衡性的降低作用较大。制定以营养为导向的食物生产和贸易政策,对提升食物供给均衡性具有重要意义。     

The domestic divide: Access to the Internet in New Zealand

We use unit records of the 2006 census to show that access to the Internet in the home varies geographically in New Zealand primarily as a result of demographic and socio‐economic differences among individuals. Of particular significance is the much lower rates of domestic access experienced by Māori and Pacific Island individuals even after controlling for differences in their age, gender, education, income, occupation and settlement type. While differences in Internet access by ethnicity has been noted before, it is the magnitude and persistence of this difference in New Zealand after controlling for correlated factors that renders this study unique. Our results have important implications in an education environment increasingly reliant on Web access, but they also raise questions about the extent of access to the Internet outside the home.     

珲春原图们江地区边境口岸物流体系建设研究

珲春-图们江地区处于东北亚经济区的几何中心,是吉林省向外开放的门户,也是东北地区向外发展物流的主要节点地区。借助珲春-图们江地区边境口岸通道优势,发展边境口岸物流业对于促进区域经济发展有着意义非常大。本文阐述了珲春-图们江地区边境口岸、对外通道、陆海联通航线的物流运输载体的建设情况,指出该地区边境口岸物流体系存在的问题,边境外贸量小,东西向物流量少,对外通道“通而不畅”,物流企业基础薄弱等问题,这些问题是制约物流体系建设的主要因素,最后有针对性地提出珲春-图们江地区物流体系建设的对策与建议。