地震背景噪声互相关方法应用研究综述

利用地震台记录的背景噪声数据,进行台站对之间数据互相关以获得反映地下介质信息的格林函数,是目前地震学领域理论研究和实际应用方面的前沿和热点。首先介绍了噪声互相关应用的发展历史,之后对其在面波成像、体波信号提取与体波成像、监测地下介质波速变化与衰减、地震定位、噪声源分析与时移校正等多个方面的应用进行了阐述,最后针对目前背景噪声互相关应用的发展进行了分析与讨论。     

基于平面波模型重访地震背景噪声互相关及空间自相关(SPAC)

自Aki(1957)提出微震的空间自相关(SPatial AutoCorelation,SPAC)技术以来,SPAC技术一直独立发展,并在工程地震领域获得了广泛应用.近20年来,地震干涉(Seisimic Interferometry,SI)在多个领域引起人们的关注,该技术的核心思想是连续地震背景噪声的互相关函数(Noise Crosscorrelation Function,NCF)可以重建系统的格林函数(Green's Function,GF),对该技术的回溯性研究建立了SPAC和NCF的关系:它们是对同一物理现象的不同描述,SPAC在频率域中描述随机平稳噪声的空间相干,NCF在时间域中描述扩散场的互相关.理论上SAPC和NCF技术要求背景噪声源均匀分布,这样的噪声场可以用平面波叠加来模拟.本文基于平面波模型重访地震背景噪声的互相关和空间自相关技术,从单色平面波的互相关表示出发,对地震背景噪声互相关及空间自相关技术进行评述,试图使这些概念更易于理解.与之前众多研究地震干涉技术的理论相比,本文尤其关注以下几点:(1)基于简单的平面波模型,给出不同维度下,源或台站对方位均匀分布时,平面波互相关对入射波的方位平均和台阵对的方位平均结果,并对格林函数GF和时域互相关函数NCF的关系进行总结.(2)给出声源和(或)交叉台站方位分布不均匀时的互相关表示,指出这种非均匀性对方位的依赖关系,与弱各向异性介质中面波速度的方位依赖关系类似,因此,非均匀源的影响在反演时可能会映射到面波方位各向异性结果中.(3)互相关运算中,哪一个台站是虚拟源.NCF包含因果性和非因果性两部分,NCF的非对称性通常用于研究噪声源的方位分布,但由于源和接收的互易关系,及对互相关运算的不同定义和不同的傅里叶变换习惯,哪一个台站是虚拟源在目前的文献中并不明确.(4)方位平均和时间平均的关系.在SPAC处理中,需要对不同方位分布的台站对进行方位平均,本文从理论上说明,单个平面波入射时,交叉台站互相关系数对台站对的方位平均,等价于单个台站对互相关系数对入射波的时间平均.(5)几种特定分布非均匀噪声源的SPAC表示.包括单独的因果性噪声源和非因果性噪声源给出的互相关函数表示,及由此带来的相移问题.(6)利用SPAC、NCF和面波GF之间的关系,给出交叉分量的空间自相关系数表示.(7)衰减介质的空间相干表示.虽然利用地震干涉技术研究介质衰减在理论上仍然存在一些争议,但人们正试图研究从连续背景噪声记录中提取介质衰减的可能性.本文基于平面波模型,给出了不同坐标选择下,衰减介质的空间相干表示,这种表达的不同,指示了由地震干涉技术提取介质衰减的困难.与众多研究地震干涉的理论相比,比如稳相近似理论、互易定理、时间反转声学等,本文主要考虑均匀介质,不涉及非均匀介质的散射,从最简单的平面波模型,理解背景噪声重建系统格林函数这一地震干涉的核心思想和相应的基本概念.     

利用背景噪声进行地震成像的新方法

利用背景地震噪声提取格林函数，即通过一对台站记录的地震噪声进行互相关计算，来近似台站间的格林函数，并进一步通过地震成像获取地下结构的认识，成为最近跨学科研究的热点问题之一.本文首先叙述了其发展背景及过程，然后分别从四个角度，简要介绍了目前对其物理原理的解释.如果该方法能得到进一步的发展，将不再依赖于天然地震以及人工地震，而仅仅利用地震台站记录的地震噪声便可获取高分辨率的地下成像.该方法将会大大促进地震学的发展.     

地震背景噪声成像研究综述

地震背景噪声成像方法已成为21世纪地震学的伟大突破之一,其原理是,对2个台站记录的连续背景噪声信号进行互相关计算,得到台站间的格林函数,利用经验格林函数得到面波速度函数,获取面波频散特性,用地震层析成像方法对面波速度进行反演,得到地球内部的速度结构。其应用近年来日益广泛,涉及各向同性和各向异性的速度结构成像、大地震前后速度结构变化监测、体波联合成像、衰减结构成像、地震定位精度提高、噪声源分布和物理起源探究、强地面运动评估等。其优点是不需要等待天然地震或使用对环境构成威胁的人工爆破,所有台阵都可以当作源,拓宽了频带范围,可以获得较多短周期频散数据,提高反演分辨率。     

由长时间连续记录不压制地震信号提取近似格林函数的可行性研究

从地震背景噪声、地震波直达波或者地震波尾波的相关函数中提取近似格林函数(Estimated Green's Function)已经成为地震学研究的一个热点.由近似格林函数中提取面波频散曲线,进而研究地壳和上地幔结构,已经成为地震学研究地球内部结构的一种新方法,其尺度由最初的几十千米发展到全球尺度.从原理上,只要由充分漫射波场的数据计算得到的互相关函数都可以得到近似格林函数,但在地震背景噪声数据的实际处理过程中,需要通过时间域的归一化处理压制地震信号的影响,然后利用频率域归一化压制单色噪声源影响和提高信噪比.但是时间域归一化的常用方法均为非线性,影响进一步提取噪声互相关函数(NCF)中的有效信息.我们通过对比有无时间域归一化和频率域归一化对不同数据进行计算得到了相似的NCF,发现时间域归一化处理并非必需,在此基础上频率域归一化处理也可以省略,由此得到一个简化的处理流程,直接计算长时间的地震记录的互相关函数得到近似格林函数,并且最大限度保留了原始振幅信息,可以更有效地用于研究噪声源.     

利用背景噪声自相关研究2014年鲁甸M_S 6.5地震震区周边地壳波速变化

利用鲁甸M_S6.5地震震区及其周边的5个台站所记录的2013年1月至2015年12月三分量地震背景噪声数据,在不同频带内计算自相关格林函数,通过30天滑动叠加获得当前格林函数,对整个研究时段格林函数长时间叠加得到参考格林函数。进一步对当前格林函数和参考格林函数分别采用移动窗互谱、伸缩技术计算各台站相对波速变化,利用计算结果研究鲁甸地震前后波速变化特征。结果表明:移动窗互谱法与伸缩法测量得到的相对波速变化趋势较为一致;0.2~0.5 Hz频带范围内测量的相对波速变化对介质的敏感深度约为4 km,具有较强的年变趋势,鲁甸地震及永善地震发生后各台站呈现出较显著的同震波速变化,表现为明显的波速下降,其中ZAT台(昭通)、YAJ台(盐津)波速下降最大,达0.06%。整个研究时段波速变化呈现出"扰动-地震-降低-恢复抬升-地震-降低-恢复-扰动"的总体特征。0.5~1 Hz频带测量结果,未观测到明显的同震波速变化,但可见一定的季节性变化特征。     

利用背景噪声数据提取地震台站间面波的可靠性分析——以中国大陆中东部地区的宽频带台站为例

利用中国大陆中东部地区以国家台网为主的100个分布均匀的宽频带地震台记录到的21个月的连续波形数据,经过单台数据处理和互相关叠加计算后,由时频分析法提取了研究区各台站对间瑞雷波的格林函数.为了检验经验格林函数的可靠性和稳定性,对沿部分路径的经验格林函数和频散曲线进行了质量评估.检测结果表明,自21个月叠加的台站对间背景噪声中提取的经验格林函数与实际的地震面波一致,提取的格林函数可靠.此外,统计了使用从3 21个月不同长度数据叠加后,经验格林函数信噪比大于10的频散曲线数目.结果表明,至少要使用12个月的数据才能提取到信噪比足够大,数目足够多,可用于反演面波速度结构的经验格林函数;12个月的叠加时长,可以保证30 s以下周期的频散曲线在时间上稳定.     

利用背景噪声数据提取地震台站间 面波的可靠性分析 以中国大陆中东部地区的宽频带台站为例

利用中国大陆中东部地区以国家台网为主的100个分布均匀的宽频带地震台记录到的21个月的连续波形数据, 经过单台数据处理和互相关叠加计算后, 由时频分析法提取了研究区各台站对间瑞雷波的格林函数. 为了检验经验格林函数的可靠性和稳定性, 对沿部分路径的经验格林函数和频散曲线进行了质量评估. 检测结果表明, 自21个月叠加的台站对间背景噪声中提取的经验格林函数与实际的地震面波一致, 提取的格林函数可靠. 此外, 统计了使用从3—21个月不同长度数据叠加后, 经验格林函数信噪比大于10的频散曲线数目. 结果表明, 至少要使用12个月的数据才能提取到信噪比足够大, 数目足够多, 可用于反演面波速度结构的经验格林函数; 12个月的叠加时长, 可以保证30 s以下周期的频散曲线在时间上稳定.     

华北科学探测台阵背景噪声特征分析

利用华北科学探测台阵180多个宽频带台站2007年的连续记录,得到了台站之间噪声互相关函数.通过对三个分量记录的相关运算,获得了Rayleigh波和Love波的经验格林函数,分析了其信噪比随周期的变化和高信噪比台站对的方位分布.利用经验格林函数的非对称性和聚束方法,研究了华北科学探测台阵地震噪声的方位分布,及其季节变化特征.尽管噪声源的分布随季节有轻微变化,但全年的分析结果表明,10～32 s周期内华北台阵的地震噪声源在各个方向上的分布近于均匀,这为利用噪声成像提供了理论前提.     

基于背景噪声经验格林函数的地震准确定位精度分析——以2008年甘肃武都地震为例

准确的震源位置能够为抗震减灾工作和地球内部结构研究提供关键信息.在震中附近观测台网密集且方位角覆盖良好的情况下,通过拟合多个台站P波、S波的观测到时,能够得到准确的震源位置.而在台网稀疏的地区,由于缺少可靠的三维速度结构模型,往往造成较大的地震定位误差.近年来发展了基于背景噪声经验格林函数（EGFs）对地震波形进行校正的重定位方法,能够有效地压制路径上复杂速度结构体的影响,提高了地震定位精度,为稀疏台网情形下地震准确定位研究提供了一个新思路.本文选取由InSAR观测到准确位置的2008年甘肃武都M_S5.5地震作为测试案例,对稀疏台网下基于背景噪声格林函数地震准确震中测定方法进行了定量评估.利用震中附近多个流动台分别作为参考台,提取其与固定台站之间的背景噪声格林函数（EGFs）,然后使用噪声Rayleigh面波格林函数对地震波形进行校正,重定位武都地震震中,并与真实震中位置进行对比.结果表明：使用距离震中30 km以内的参考台,利用10~30 s频段的面波走时信息,噪声叠加时长为一个月,定位精度在5 km以内;当噪声叠加时间一年以上,重定位精度优于1 km.本文进一步针对缺少近台以及台网更加稀疏的情况进行了测试,发现使用10个左右固定台进行重定位,基于较高质量的噪声EGFs频散数据,定位结果精度可达3 km,从而给出了该方法的高精度定位所需的固定台网及参考台站的观测指标体系.

     

汶川与昆仑山强烈地震激发的地球自由振荡频谱的对比分析

强烈地震激发的地震波信息非常丰富,高频信息能量部分会在小范围短时间内迅速衰减,而低频信息特别是较低频信息能量部分则衰减较慢,会绕地球很多圈后才会消耗殆尽,从而激发地球的自由振荡.虽然地球自由振荡的固有频率不变,但不同震源机制的地震激发的地球自由振荡频率成分会随着震级、震源机制、方位等的不同而有显著差别.本文利用2008年5月12日汶川(Mw7.9)地震与2001年11月14日昆仑山(Mw7.8)地震这两个能量震级相当但震源机制不同的地震,基于地震波传播理论,考虑横向各向同性PREM地球模型并融合Crust2.0地壳模型、S20RTS地幔模型及PREM径向衰减模型,利用谱元法结合高性能并行计算,对这两次强烈地震激发的全球地震波传播进行了数值模拟,计算它们激发的地球自由振荡频谱特征差异.计算结果显示了汶川地震的逆冲-走滑特性及昆仑山地震的水平左旋走滑特征.利用理论计算得到的地震波动记录进行功率谱密度估计对比分析,研究结果显示这两次强烈地震释放的低频信息能量大小相当,但总体上看昆仑山地震释放的能量略小于汶川地震的.对比分析表明,不同地震激发的地球自由振荡模式在同一台站处的发育程度不同;同一地震激发的地球自由振荡在不同台站处记录到的振型频率成分也有很大差异.对于不同地震激发的地球自由振荡,有一些频率成分共同出现,表现为地球自由振荡功率谱能量均较大;也有一些振型由于相长干涉,仅在某些地震中被激发而得以良好发育,表现为功率谱能量明显较大;而一些振型由于相消干涉,在一些地震激发方式下被压制,表现为功率谱能量明显很小,甚至接近于0.计算结果清楚地显示了不同地震激发方式下地球振荡模式丰富而复杂的特性,需要对不同地震激发的地球振荡信息进行综合深入的分析,才能对地球内部结构尤其横向不均匀特性给予全面的科学解释.     

Effect of earthquakes on ambient noise cross-correlation function

Surface wave tomography method based on analysis of ambient noise is widely used during the last decade. It is assumed that correlated component of noise is composed of surface waves generated by sources distributed over the Earth’s surface more or less uniformly. In such a case the cross-correlation function (CCF) at two stations may be considered as the Green’s function of surface wave. This function should be symmetric relatively to zero time. However analysis of CCF at the stations located at the East-European Platform shows that as a rule CCF is characterized with a strong asymmetry. Since “purered noise cannot be extracted from seismic records due to superposition of earthquake signals, the method for calculation of CCF includes amplitude normalization for suppression of earthquakes that reduces signals from earthquakes to a noise level. The parts of records containing waves from earthquakes are neglected because of their short duration. Present study shows that this contribution turns out to be dominant at periods larger than 20–40 s. In other words, what is assumed as a “noisered in reality is a superposition of signals from earthquakes. This fact results in distortion of the Green’s function and of surface wave dispersion curve used in surface wave tomography if in the time interval used for calculation of CCF many earthquakes occur within a small area apart of an extension of the interstation path (clustering). Numerical modeling shows how clusters of sources affect CCF and dispersion curve correspondingly. Means for reducing this effect are outlined.     

柯坪塔格断裂带重复地震识别及其时空特征分析

根据互相关系数不小于0.8的波形互相关意义上重复地震的定义, 利用国家数字地震台网中的乌什和巴楚台记录的区域地震波形数据, 识别并研究了新疆柯坪塔格断裂带及其周缘的板内重复地震. 对所有相互距离不超过30 km的地震事件的垂直分量采用0.5—5.0 Hz带通滤波后进行波形互相关计算. 其中乌什台共识别出460例重复地震, 组成重复地震对和多重地震对共171组, 占总事件数的15.5%; 巴楚台共识别出822例重复地震, 组成重复地震对和多重地震对共298组, 占总事件数的21.2%. 对重复地震的分析表明, 台站分布的不同和波形事件记录质量的差异, 是造成两个台站识别出的“重复地震”数目和比例不同的原因. 对重复地震复发的时间间隔统计表明, 重复间隔从数分钟到数百天不等, 最长重复间隔达10年.     

Improving automatic location procedure by waveform similarity analysis: An application in the South Western Alps (Italy)

The accuracy of automatic procedures for locating earthquakes is influenced by several factors such as errors in picking seismic phases, network geometry, modeling errors and velocity model uncertainties. The main purpose of this work is to improve the performances of the automatic procedure employed for the “quasi-real-time” location of seismic events in North Western Italy by developing a procedure based on a waveform similarity analysis and by using only one seismic station.To detect “earthquake families” a cross-correlation technique was applied to a data set of seismic waveforms recorded in the period 1985-2002, in a small test area (1600 km²) located in the South Western Alps (Italy). Normalized cross-correlation matrices were calculated using about 2700 seismic events, selected on the basis of the signal to noise ratio, manually picked and located by using the Hypoellipse code. The waveform similarity analysis, based on the bridging technique, allowed grouping about 65% of the selected events into 80 earthquake families (multiplets) located inside the area considered. For each earthquake family a master event is selected, manually re-picked and re-located by using Hypoellipse code. Having chosen a reference station (STV) on the basis of the completeness of the available data set, an automatic procedure has been developed with the aim of cross-correlating new seismic recordings (automatically picked) to the waveforms of the events belonging to the detected families. If the new event is proved to belong to a family (on the basis of the cross-correlation values), its hypocenter co-ordinates are defined by the location of the master event of the associated family. The performance of the proposed procedure is tested and demonstrated using a data set of 104 selected earthquakes recorded in the period January 2003-June 2004 and located in the test area. The automatic procedure is able to locate, associating events with the multiplets detected by the waveform similarity analysis, about 50% of the test events, almost independently of the accuracy of the automatic phase picker and without the biasing of the network geometry and of the velocity model uncertainties.     

Determining the focal mechanisms and depths of relatively small earthquakes using a few stations by full‐waveform modelling

Determining the focal mechanism of earthquakes helps us to better define faults and understand the stress regime. This technique can be helpful in the oil and gas industry where it can be applied to microseismic events. The objective of this paper is to find double couple focal mechanisms, excluding scalar seismic moments, and the depths of small earthquakes using data from relatively few local stations. This objective is met by generating three‐component synthetic seismograms to match the observed normalized velocity seismograms. We first calculate Green's functions given an initial estimate of the earthquake's hypocentre, the locations of the seismic recording stations and a 1D velocity model of the region for a series of depths. Then, we calculate the moment tensor for different combinations of strikes, dips and rakes for each depth. These moment tensors are combined with the Green's functions and then convolved with a source time function to produce synthetic seismograms. We use a grid search to find the synthetic seismogram with the largest objective function that best fits all three components of the observed velocity seismogram. These parameters define the focal mechanism solution of an earthquake. We tested the method using three earthquakes in Southern California with moment magnitudes of 5.0, 5.1 and 4.4 using the frequency range 0.1–2.0 Hz. The source mechanisms of the events were determined independently using data from a multitude of stations. Our results obtained, from as few as three stations, generally match those obtained by the Southern California Earthquake Data Center. The main advantage of this method is that we use relatively high‐frequency full‐waveforms, including those from short‐period instruments, which makes it possible to find the focal mechanism and depth of earthquakes using as few as three stations when the velocity structure is known.     

Location and moment tensor inversion of small earthquakes using 3D Green’s functions in models with rugged topography: application to the Longmenshan fault zone

With dense seismic arrays and advanced imaging methods, regional three-dimensional(3D) Earth models have become more accurate. It is now increasingly feasible and advantageous to use a 3D Earth model to better locate earthquakes and invert their source mechanisms by fitting synthetics to observed waveforms. In this study, we develop an approach to determine both the earthquake location and source mechanism from waveform information. The observed waveforms are filtered in different frequency bands and separated into windows for the individual phases. Instead of picking the arrival times, the traveltime differences are measured by cross-correlation between synthetic waveforms based on the 3D Earth model and observed waveforms. The earthquake location is determined by minimizing the cross-correlation traveltime differences. We then fix the horizontal location of the earthquake and perform a grid search in depth to determine the source mechanism at each point by fitting the synthetic and observed waveforms. This new method is verified by a synthetic test with noise added to the synthetic waveforms and a realistic station distribution. We apply this method to a series of M_W3.4–5.6 earthquakes in the Longmenshan fault(LMSF) zone, a region with rugged topography between the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau and the western part of the Sichuan basin. The results show that our solutions result in improved waveform fits compared to the source parameters from the catalogs we used and the location can be better constrained than the amplitude-only approach. Furthermore, the source solutions with realistic topography provide a better fit to the observed waveforms than those without the topography, indicating the need to take the topography into account in regions with rugged topography.     

Normal faulting mechanisms in the Western Desert of Egypt

Egypt is recognized as a moderate seismicity region where earthquakes are distributed within several active regions. Owing to sparse distribution of both seismicity and seismic stations, mostly moderate-size Egyptian earthquakes were recorded by regional stations. One of such cases is the moderate-size earthquakes of moment magnitudes greater than 4.0 which struck the Western Desert of Egypt in 1998 and 1999. These events are the first instrumentally recorded earthquakes occurring in the area. In the present study, the source mechanism for these earthquakes was estimated using the waveform data recorded from one of the very broadband MedNet seismograph stations and polarities from the national short-period seismographs. An iterative technique was applied to find the best-fit double-couple mechanism by a grid search over strike, dip and rake. Regional synthetic seismograms were calculated by using f–k integration in the frequency range of 0.03–0.1 Hz. A crustal structure fitted to surface wave dispersion curves was used to compute Green’s function. Focal depths were determined through the grid search method for a range of source depths. Our results show a normal faulting mechanism with minor strike-slip component. The NNW trend has been chosen as a preferred rupture plane in consistence with surface and subsurface faults and microearthquake seismicity in the epicenteral area as well.     

Local-scale cross-correlation of seismic noise from the Calico fault experiment

Most studies of seismic noise cross-correlation (NCC) have focused on regional/continental scale imaging using empirical surface-wave Green’s functions extracted from primary (0.05–0.08 Hz) and secondary (0.1–0.16 Hz) microseisms. In this work, we present the NCC results at higher frequencies (>0.5 Hz) from 6 months seismic noise recorded by a local array (~4 km aperture) deployed along the Calico fault in the Mojave Desert, California. Both fast and slow propagating waves are observed from the NCC record-sections. We compare the NCCs from sensor pairs that share a common sensor with the records of a borehole shot located very close to this common sensor. The result shows a good match of the slow surface-wave arrivals, indicating that the NCC method is able to recover unbiased surface-wave Green’s functions at local scales. The strong body-wave NCC component is caused by the P waves generated offshore California. Along a SW–NE profile across the fault, we observe apparent P-wave arrivals and their reflections, which can be explained by a low-velocity-zone (LVZ) along the Calico fault. We calculate the LVZ width to be ~ 2.3 km, and the P-wave velocity reduction within the LVZ to be ~35 %. These estimates are consistent with other evidence for a relatively wide LVZ along the Calico fault.     

2015尼泊尔M_S8.1地震中等余震震源机制研究

本研究利用西藏台网记录的波形数据,采用gCAP方法反演了2015年4月25日尼泊尔MS8.1大震5次中等余震(5.0≤MS≤6.5)及西藏定日MS5.9地震震源机制解.结果显示,6次地震包含2个正断、2个走滑及2个逆冲型地震.其中2个正断型地震位于主震的东北方向,即发震断层的上盘,表明该区域受到主震同震位移的影响,表现出应力拉张的变化特征;2个走滑型地震在主震破裂的东南方向上,说明随着破裂往东南方向延伸,余震的走滑分量增强;另外2个逆冲型地震位于5月12日MS7.5强余震区域,与MS7.5地震的滑移状态一致,可能与主震同震位移引起该区域处于应力挤压状态密切相关.这些结果表明,尼泊尔MS8.1主震发生后,由于同震位移的影响,不同区域处于不同的应力状态,从而使中等余震表现出不同的震源类型.