Thermal structure of active thrust belts

Abstract In order to study the thermal structure of active thrust belts, we have developed a numerical model of conductive heat transfer between thrust sheets during deformation. Our finite difference approach alternates small, instantaneous increments of displacement and isotherm translation with conductive relaxation of perturbed isotherms. In each step, conduction occurs for a length of time equal to the displacement increment divided by the thrust velocity. Computer simulations demonstrate that conductive heat transfer is significant during deformation and that temperatures in hanging-wall rocks decrease while temperatures in foot-wall rocks increase over distances of up to 10 km from the thrust surface. When the effects of internal heat production are also calculated, heating of foot-wall rocks exceeds cooling of hanging-wall rocks. Rocks located between two thrusts may experience a complicated temperature–time path of early heating followed by cooling. These models help to explain the rapid metamorphism of rocks in the Taconian thrust belt in the northern Appalachians of New England soon after deposition of the youngest sediments.     

The terminology of structures in thrust belts

A review of structures and geometric relationships recognized in thrust belts is presented. A thrust is defined as any contractional fault, a corollary being that thrusts must cut up-section in their transport direction. ‘Flats’ are those portions of a thrust surface which were parallel to an arbitrary datum surface at the time of displacement and ‘ramps’ are those portions of thrusts which cut across datum surfaces. Ramps are classified on the basis of their orientation relative to the thrust transport direction and whether they are cut offs in the hangingwall or footwall of the thrust. Lateral variations in the form of staircase trajectories are joined by oblique or lateral ramps which have a component of strike-slip movement.An array of thrusts which diverge in their transport direction may form by either of two propagation models. These are termed ‘piggy-back’ propagation, which is foreland-directed, and ‘overstep’ propagation which is opposed to the thrust transport direction. An array of thrust surfaces is termed an ‘imbricate stack’ and should these surfaces anastamose upwards a ‘duplex’ will result; the fault-bounded blocks are termed ‘horses’. A duplex is bounded by a higher, ‘roof’ thrust and a lower, ‘floor’ thrust. The intersection of any two thrust planes is termed a ‘branch line’.Thrusts can be classified on the basis of their relationship to asymmetric fold limbs which they cut. A further classification arises from whether a particular thrust lies in the hangingwall or footwall of another one.The movement of thrust sheets over corrugated surfaces, or the local development of thrust structures beneath, will fold higher thrust sheets. These folds are termed ‘culminations’ and their limbs are termed ‘culmination walls’. Accommodation of this folding may require movement on surfaces within the hangingwall of the active thrust. These accommodation surfaces are termed ‘hangingwall detachments’ and they need not root down into the active thrust. This category of detachment includes dip-slip ‘hangingwall drop faults’ which are developed by differential uplift of duplex roofs, and ‘out-of-the-syncline’ thrusts which develop from overtightened fold hinges. Back thrusts, as well as forming as hangingwall detachments, may also form due to layer-parallel shortening above a sticking thrust or by rotation of the hangingwall above a ramp.     

前陆冲断带非对称性变形与逆冲断层运动学指向

前陆冲断带冲断层的冲断方向一直没有得到理论解释。文中基于库伦断裂理论和造山带前陆冲断带变形的非对称性,分析了前冲断层和反冲断层的成因。变形初期将会出现两组共轭势断裂面,随后在变形非对称引起的准静力平衡条件下,两组势断裂面中所需作用力小的那组断裂面将更容易发育成冲断层,断层滑动所需作用力包括克服滑脱面摩擦力和断层面摩擦力两部分。大部分条件下,前陆区前冲断层将优先发育,但当最大主应力轴向前陆倾斜时或共轭断层交叉点在滑脱面上时,反冲断层将有可能优先发育。后缘推动力、滑脱面摩擦力和滑体形状都会决定着主应力轴的方位。上述认识能够解释包括收缩变形区、伸展变形区等断层发育的选择性。     

Geometries of frontal fold and thrust belts: Insights from discrete element simulations

This study investigated the evolution of frontal structures of fold and thrust belts with 2D numerical simulations using the discrete element method (DEM). Of specific interest is the occurrence of triangle zones, and how mechanical stratigraphy affects the formation of the triangle zones. In our simulations, we varied the strength of a two unit stratigraphy, as well as the décollement horizons, to determine the controlling parameters of different types of frontal structures. For models with homogenous stratigraphy, deformation was concentrated along forethrusts, which involved both the upper and lower units. With the addition of a mechanically weak upper unit, deformation along forethrusts and popup structures largely occurred in the upper unit with relatively little deformation of the lower unit. With thicker décollement surfaces and strong upper and lower units, decoupling was enhanced and allowed for the formation of triangle zones in front of the deforming wedge. The triangle zones were uplifted along lower forethrusts, until a new frontal triangle zone formed. Results compared favorably with triangle zones found in the Canadian Cordillera in southern Alberta.     

四川盆地盆缘前陆逆冲带的复合与联合扩展研究综述

前陆逆冲带扩展方式是理解造山带生长的关键。四川盆地东缘、北缘和西缘分别发育不同时代和不同构造背景下形成的武陵山-华蓥山、大巴山和龙门山前陆逆冲带,前人对他们的结构和构造运动学进行了详尽的研究。本文在总结这些研究的基础上,揭示武陵山-华蓥山、大巴山和龙门山三条前陆逆冲带的结构分带均表现为从厚皮逆冲构造至薄皮逆冲构造组合的变化,构造解析表明结构分带是断层-褶皱关系主导的指向前陆盆地方向共轴递进扩展作用的结果。同时,在前陆逆冲带扩展分析基础上,总结了四川盆地盆缘共轴扩展、非共轴叠加复合扩展和联合构造扩展三种前陆逆冲带扩展方式。结合阿巴拉契亚、科迪勒拉、阿尔卑斯、喜马拉雅、比利牛斯山等经典造山带前陆逆冲带扩展的研究现状,提出前陆逆冲带扩展研究中存在古构造应力场的σ₂悖论、应力-应变(σ-ε)关系难以建立和系统不平衡等问题,并认为这些问题是未来定量化约束前陆逆冲带扩展,进而解决造山带生长构造动力学研究的主要挑战。     

褶皱冲断带物理模拟实验研究进展

褶皱冲断带油气资源丰富,统计表明全球探明油气储量约14%分布在褶皱冲断带。自从1815年地质学家第一次以模拟实验的方式验证了褶皱形成于岩层遭受水平挤压变形的二百多年来,针对褶皱冲断带的物理模拟实验研究无疑是最卓有成效的研究领域方向之一。本文从追溯早期模拟实验先驱,到近二十年来国内外相关研究进展综述,着重分析和评述物理模拟实验研究对于前陆褶皱冲断带构造理论发展的主要贡献。强调造山带临界楔体理论以及基底滑脱层强度、流体超压和变形岩层内聚强度等对构造变形过程的控制作用。主要介绍的实验性标志成果有：(1)褶皱冲断带构造变形的生长规律;(2)褶皱冲断带的构造变形机制;(3)褶皱冲断带中构造变形的主控因素。我们的目的是提供引人入胜的物理模拟实验研究成果,吸引更多现在和未来的研究人员理解和重视物理模拟工作,借助日益进步的实验装置和技术方法,促进盆地构造研究在学科发展道路上,一步步实现从定性走向定量、从二维走向三维、从几何学和运动学走向动力学的飞跃。     

数值模拟在沉积盆地褶皱冲断构造变形研究中的应用与发展

数值模拟是一种利用电子计算机,通过数值计算和图像显示的方法,研究工程问题、物理问题乃至自然界各类问题的方法。随着高性能计算的不断发展,数值模拟方法在沉积盆地构造变形研究中的应用不断扩大,学术界和工业界将数值模拟方法广泛应用于盆地构造变形特征与变形机制的定量研究,取得了丰硕的成果。本文在系统分析前人数值模拟成果的基础上,阐述了有限元、有限差分、边界元和离散元四种常用数值模拟实验方法的特征和应用。同时,本文对近年来数值模拟方法在沉积盆地褶皱冲断构造变形中的研究进展进行了分类总结,重点介绍这一方法在构造特征与变形机制研究中取得的成果,为数值模拟方法在盆地构造变形领域应用的不断扩大和深入提供参考。最后,本文对数值模拟技术在目前应用中面临的问题和未来的发展方向提出了一些看法和建议。     

天山南北缘前陆冲断构造对比研究及其油气藏形成的构造控制因素分析

天山南北缘分别发育了库车前陆冲断带和乌鲁木齐前陆冲断带,南缘前陆冲断带发育4排褶皱冲断构造,北缘前陆冲断带发育3排褶皱冲断构造。天山南北缘前陆冲断构造形成时间的对比研究表明,南缘第一排构造带起始时间为23.3Ma,构造形变从山前由北向南依次展开;北缘第一排构造带的形成时限为10~8Ma,构造形变从山前开始由南向北依次展开。平衡剖面研究表明,天山南北缘地壳缩短率也存在明显差异,南缘前陆冲断带地壳缩短率为31%~59%,北缘前陆冲断带地壳缩短率为15.13%~23.74%,南缘构造缩短量要大于北缘,这种差异正是印度板块和欧亚板块碰撞的远距离构造效应从南向北传播造成的,也真实反映了天山的陆内造山过程。目前天山南缘前陆变形构造中已经发现几个规模较大的油气田,北缘虽有多处油气显示和油气田的发现,但数量和规模均较南缘少和小。天山南北缘生储盖等石油地质条件基本相似,大型油气藏形成的差异可能主要是由天山南北缘前陆冲断带启动时间的不同造成的。     

Topography as a major factor in the development of arcuate thrust belts: insights from sandbox experiments

We have used sandbox experiments to investigate and to illustrate the effects of topography upon the development of arcuate thrust belts. In experiments where a sand pack shortened and thickened in front of an advancing rectilinear piston, the geometry of the developing thrust wedge was highly sensitive to variations in surface topography. In the absence of erosion and sedimentation, the surface slope tended to become uniform, as predicted by the theory of critical taper. Under these conditions, the wedge propagated by sequential accretion of new thrust slices. In contrast, where erosion or sedimentation caused the topographic profile to become irregular, thrusts developed out of sequence. For example, erosion throughout a hinterland caused underlying thrusts to remain active and inhibited the development of new thrusts in the foreland. Where initial topography was irregular in plan view, accreting thrusts tended to be arcuate. They were convex towards the foreland, around an initially high area; concave towards the foreland, around an initially low area. Initial plateaux tended to behave rigidly, while arcuate thrust slices accreted to them. Thrust motions were radial with respect to each plateau. Within transfer zones to each side, fault blocks rotated about vertical axes and thrust motions were oblique-slip. At late stages of deformation, the surface slope of the thrust wedge tended towards a uniform value. Initial mountains of conical shape (representing volcanoes) also escaped deformation, except at depth, where they detached. Arcuate thrust slices accreted to front and back. Where a developing thrust wedge was subject to local incision, accreting thrust slices dipped towards surrounding areas of high topography, forming Vs across valleys.Arcuate structural patterns are to be found around the three highest plateaux on Earth (Tibet, Pamirs and Altiplano) and around the Tromen volcanic ridge in the Neuquén Basin of northern Patagonia. We infer that these areas behaved in quasi-rigid fashion, protected as they were by their high topography.     

天山南北缘前陆冲断构造对比研究及其油气藏形成的构造控制因素分析

天山南北缘分别发育了库车前陆冲断带和乌鲁木齐前陆冲断带,南缘前陆冲断带发育4排褶皱冲断构造,北缘前陆冲断带发育3排褶皱冲断构造。天山南北缘前陆冲断构造形成时间的对比研究表明,南缘第一排构造带起始时间为23.3Ma,构造形变从山前由北向南依次展开;北缘第一排构造带的形成时限为10~8Ma,构造形变从山前开始由南向北依次展开。平衡剖面研究表明,天山南北缘地壳缩短率也存在明显差异,南缘前陆冲断带地壳缩短率为31%~59%,北缘前陆冲断带地壳缩短率为15.13%~23.74%,南缘构造缩短量要大于北缘,这种差异正是印度板块和欧亚板块碰撞的远距离构造效应从南向北传播造成的,也真实反映了天山的陆内造山过程。目前天山南缘前陆变形构造中已经发现几个规模较大的油气田,北缘虽有多处油气显示和油气田的发现,但数量和规模均较南缘少和小。天山南北缘生储盖等石油地质条件基本相似,大型油气藏形成的差异可能主要是由天山南北缘前陆冲断带启动时间的不同造成的。     

中国前陆冲断带油气勘探、理论与技术主要进展和展望

我国中西部地区发育有16个前陆冲断带,油气资源总体较为丰富。前陆冲断带在天然气加快发展中地位与作用重要,是近期勘探突破发现、增储上产的重要领域和补充。2011年以来前陆冲断带勘探获得塔里木盆地库车深层天然气及柴达木盆地西南缘石油两项重大突破、准噶尔盆地西北缘石油及四川盆地西北缘天然气两项重大进展、准噶尔盆地南缘及塔里木盆地西南缘和鄂尔多斯西缘油气3个重要苗头,进一步夯实了西气东输资源基础,推动了前陆盆地大油气区勘探进程。前陆冲断带地质研究在盆地原型恢复和晚期构造改造、深层结构刻画与构造解剖、储层演化与油气充注机制、断-盖控藏模式与油气有效聚集3-R评价方法、区域成藏特征与油气分布规律5个方面形成创新认识,发展了中西部前陆冲断带油气聚集理论。前陆冲断带勘探配套技术研发在复杂构造建模技术、复杂构造深度域地震成像技术、复杂油气藏综合评价技术、前陆深层钻完井和储层压裂改造技术4方面取得进展,推动了前陆核心技术形成和油气勘探发现。前陆冲断带近期勘探显示出较大增储潜力与挑战共存的局面。展望了前陆基础地质、油气勘探、勘探技术研究3方面特点与发展趋势,分析了近期勘探的3点启示与增储潜力,针对未来前陆冲断带在勘探生产、地质研究、配套技术上面临的挑战,提出了相应的4方面勘探研究对策与建议。     

Relationships between granite-gneiss terrains,greenstone belts and granulite belts in the archean crust of Lapland (Fennoscandia)

The Archean crust of Lapland (Fennoscandia) consists of four units (from north to south): (1) the Inarijärvi nucleus, old basement complex of gneisses and greenstones, (2) the granulite belt, thick terrigenous metasedimentary sequence intruded by small amounts of calc-alkaline plutonic rocks, (3) the Tana River belt composed of tholeiitic metavolcanics, and (4) a set of gneiss domes fringed with younger greenstone belts.The main feature of their metamorphic and tectonic evolution are described. Geodynamic models applied to the Archean are discussed and a crustal evolutionary model suitable for this region is proposed.We assume that the Tana River and granulite belts represent a suture between an older domain in the north (craton of Kola Peninsula) and the northern part of the Archean basement of Central Finland.

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Zusammenfassung Die archaische Kruste von Lapland (Fennoscandia) besteht von Nord nach Süd aus vier Einheiten: (1) der Inarijärvi-Kern, ein alter Grundgebirgskomplex mit Gneisen und Grünschiefem; (2) der Granulit-Gürtel mit mächtigen terrigenen Metasedimenten, in die kleine Kalkalkaliplutone intrudierten; (3) der Tana-Gürtel, der aus tholeiitischen Metavulkaniten besteht; (4) eine Gruppe von Gneisdomen, die von jüngeren Grünschieferzonen umgeben werden.Wir nehmen an, daß der Tana-Gürtel und der Granulit-Gürtel eine Sutur zwischen einem älteren Kern im Norden (Kola-Kraton) und dem nördlichen Teil des archaischen Grundgebirges von Zentralfinnland bildet.

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Résumé La croûte archéenne de Laponie (Fennoscandie) comprend quatre unités principales. Ce sont du Nord au Sud: (1) le nucleus de l'Inarijärvi, formé par un vieux socle complexe avec des gneiss et des roches vertes, (2) la ceinture granulitique, à l'origine formée par une épaisse séquence sédimentaire térrigène et par des intrusions calcoalcalines, (3) la ceinture de la Tana River composée de métavolcanites tholéitiques et, (4) un ensemble de dÔmes de gneiss flanqués de jeunes ceintures de roches vertes.Les grands traits de l'évolution tectonométamorphique de cet ensemble sont décrits. Les modèles géodynamiques archéens classiques sont discutés et un modèle d'évolution crustale pour cette région est proposé.Nous pensons que la ceinture de la Tana River et celle des granulites représentent une suture entre un domaine ancien au Nord (craton de la Péninsule de Kola) et la partie septentrionale du socle archéen de Finlande centrale.

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前陆盆地冲断带构造分段特征及其对油气成藏的控制作用

以中国中西部典型前陆盆地为例,分析了典型前陆盆地前陆冲断带的构造分段特征,总结构造分段的主控因素主要包括构造动力学背景、调节构造、构造变形期次与构造叠加、滑脱层与构造变形强度的影响等。中国中西部前陆冲断带的油气勘探成果表明,构造分段特征对不同构造段油气成藏具有明显的影响和控制作用,主要表现为:不同构造段的油气富集层位不同;不同构造段的油气成藏时间及成藏期次特征存在差异,主成藏期也不同。     

Main Frontal thrust deformation and topographic growth of the Mohand Range,northwest Himalaya

The Main Frontal thrust (MFT) uplifts the Himalayan topographic front. Deciphering MFT deformation kinematics is crucial for understanding how the orogen accommodates continuing continental collision and assessing associated hazards. Here, we (a) detail newly discovered fault-zone exposures along the MFT at the Mohand Range front in northwestern India and (b) apply contemporary fault zone theory to show that the MFT is an emergent fault with a well-developed fault zone overlain by uplifted Quaternary gravels over a horizontal length of ∼700 m. Northward from the front, the fault zone grades from a central, gouge-dominated core to a hanging-wall, rock-dominated damage zone. We observed incohesive, non-foliated breccia, fault gouge, and brittle deformation microstructures within the fractured country rocks (Middle Siwaliks) and outcrop scale, non-plunging folds in the proximal hanging wall. We interpret these observations to suggest that (1) elastico-frictional (brittle) deformation processes operated in the fault zone at near surface (∼1–5 km depth) conditions and (2) the folds formed first at the propagating MFT fault tip, then were subsequently dismembered by the fault itself. Thus, we interpret the Mohand Range as a fault-propagation fold driven by an emergent MFT in contrast to the consensus view that it is a fault-bend fold. A fault-propagation fold model is more consistent with these new observations, the modern range-scale topography, and existing erosion estimates. To further evaluate our proposed structural model, we used a Boundary Element Method-based dislocation model to simulate topographic growth from excess slip at a propagating fault tip. Results show that the frontal topography could have evolved by slip along a (a) near-surface fault plane consistent with the present-day MFT location, or (b) blind MFT at ∼3 km depth farther north near the drainage divide. Comparing modelled vs. measured high resolution (∼16 cm) topographic profiles for each case provides permissible end-member scenarios of an either dynamically-evolving, high erosion, northward-migrating frontal scarp or a static, low, and symmetric, MHT-related fold, respectively. Our integrated approach is expected to deliver an improved understanding of coupled fault-generated deformation and topographic growth that may be applied more broadly across the entire Himalayan front.     

前陆冲断带构造分段特征--以准噶尔盆地西北缘断裂构造带为例

前陆冲断带普遍具有构造分段的特点。横断层、侧断坡与斜断坡常是构造分段的边界 ,它们起着运动方向、变形速率、构造样式与成因机制转换的作用。准噶尔西北缘前陆冲断带是古生代晚期—中生代早期发展起来的大型冲断推覆系统 ,南自车排子 ,北至夏子街、红旗坝的大型断裂带为其冲断前锋断裂。由于形成时间、活动方式与受力条件等出现变化 ,车排子—夏子街断裂带被北西向的横断层分割为构造样式与地质结构截然不同的三段 ,南段为红山嘴—车排子断裂带 ,构成车排子断隆的东部逆冲边界 ;中段为具压扭性质的克拉玛依—百口泉断裂带 ;北段为具冲断推覆性质的乌尔禾—夏子街断裂带。中生代晚期—新生代以来该前陆冲断带被稳定埋藏 ,构造分段是导致含油气性差异的主要原因     

新生代柴达木盆地与周缘造山带的构造耦合

新生代以来,中国西部的一系列古老造山带和盆地在印-亚板块汇聚作用下重新复活,在青藏高原外围形成了现今全球最大的陆内挤压构造域,被称为环青藏高原盆山体系,其形成过程与机制对深入认识陆-陆碰撞如何影响大陆内部变形有重要意义。柴达木盆地是中国西部重要的新生代沉积盆地,四周均被巨型造山带所围限,共同构成了环青藏高原盆山体系北东段的主体。本文利用最新的石油地震勘探数据、地表地质和已发表的深反射地震数据,将上地壳变形与岩石圈深部变形有机结合,系统刻画了柴达木盆地与周缘三大造山带之间岩石圈尺度的构造耦合关系,在此基础上探讨环青藏高原盆山体系北东段的盆山汇聚过程与机制。柴达木盆地与南侧祁曼塔格—东昆仑山、北东侧南祁连山之间在上地壳尺度发育一系列倾向造山带的基底卷入高角度逆断裂体系,自新生代早期就开始活动,以垂直的基底抬升为主,水平缩短量有限;在下地壳和岩石圈地幔深度则发育倾向盆地一侧的深大断裂,使得柴达木盆地与周缘造山带之间发生截然的莫霍面错断。这些变形特征揭示柴达木盆地与南侧祁曼塔格—东昆仑山、北东侧南祁连山之间发育岩石圈尺度的构造楔,即盆地的岩石圈楔入至增厚的造山带下地壳,其发育主要受盆地与造山带...     

造山带火山岩浆作用

造山带火山岩石学研究的主要目的在于重溯造山带的构造-岩浆演化历史.纵观我国以至全球的大陆造山带形成-演化历史,一个造山带往往经历了古大陆裂解、洋陆转换、陆块拼合-碰撞、陆内伸展-盆山耦合和新构造隆升(陆内造山)等众多不同的构造演化阶段,这些不同的构造演化阶段和不同的构造环境均有特定火山岩浆作用与之相伴.因此,我们可以根据造山带形成-演化不同阶段火山岩浆作用的特点来重溯造山带的构造-岩浆演化历史,并进而从更大尺度上加以对比,探索全球动力学乃至比较行星动力学等重大科学问题.本文对造山带火山岩石学研究中的一些重要问题进行了讨论和评述,这些问题包括有:板块内部火山岩浆活动、离散板块边界上的火山岩浆活动、会聚板块边缘的火山岩浆活动.     

塔里木盆地西北缘柯坪逆冲构造带与巴楚隆起的叠加关系

塔里木盆地西北缘柯坪逆冲带是天山和塔里木盆地在新生代盆山耦合作用下形成的构造变形区，为印度板块和 欧亚板块碰撞所影响的最明显地区之一。柯坪逆冲带逆冲方向是从天山向塔里木盆地内逆冲，构造变形样式是以寒武系蒸发岩层为滑动拆离面的薄皮构造，也有卷入前寒武系－元古界结晶基底的逆冲推覆构造，以及北西向走滑断层。以皮羌断层和印干断层为界，根据构造样式的差异，柯坪逆冲带可分为3个构造区，即西克尔区、柯坪区和阿克苏区。西克尔区逆冲推覆构造卷入地层厚度大，基底拆离面深度为7－8km；柯坪区逆冲推覆构造卷入地层厚度小，基底拆离面深度为5－6km；阿克苏区则为卷入前寒武系结晶基底的逆冲推覆构造。这些构造样式的差异是由于北西向的巴楚隆起对近北东走向的柯坪逆冲构造带叠加的结果，尤其巴楚隆起的南界－－皮羌高角度逆冲断层与柯坪逆冲带发育的皮羌左旋走滑断层，以及巴楚隆起的北界－－印干逆冲断层与柯坪逆冲带发育的印干右旋走滑断层对柯坪冲构造带的叠加最为明显。