登陆我国热带气旋的统计特征

NCAR(National Center for Atmospheric Research)在1990年代发展起来的多普勒雷达四维变分分析系统(The four-dimensional Variational Doppler Radar Analysis System，简称VDRAS)，采用四维变分(4D—VAR)资料同化技术和云尺度数值模式及其伴随模式，利用单部或多部多普勒雷达观测资料，反演对流尺度风暴的动力结构和微物理结构，包括三维风场、温度场、气压场和微物理量场。本文介绍了VDRAS的基本原理、个例试验和实时运行等概况，旨在随着我国新一代天气雷达建设的逐步完成，为应用我国新一代天气雷达的观测资料，开展4D-VAR方法的研究和应用提供一些参考或借鉴。     

ANALYSIS ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TROPICAL CYCLONES MAKING LANDFALL ON DIFFERENT REGIONS OF CHINESE MAINLAND

The locations(longitudes and latitudes)of the tropical cyclones(TCs)making landfall on the Chinese mainland from 1949 to 2008 are investigated in detail by using ArcGis and FORTRAN routine.The southeast coastline[110 to 122°E)with most landfall TCs was selected as the key region,which was divided into 12 subsections with 1°intervals of longitude.The study period was from July to September in each year.The result showed that the average sustaining time of TCs making landfall on the subsections east of 118°E is longer than those west of 118°E.Before landfall,the averaged TC intensity in the subsections east of118°E is stronger than that west of it.After landfall,however,the difference between the west and east is not significant.The index of destructive potential for the period before/after landfall was defined as TDP1/TDP2.The maximum of TDP1/TDP2 occurred in the subsection of[119,120°E)/[110,111°E).The ENSO impact on the frequency and average location of landfall TC over the whole region at 110 to 122°E is not obvious,but the effect varies with specific subsections.There is little differences of averaged TDP1 in the subsections between different phases of ENSO events,but the averaged TDP2 is larger in the warm events than that in the cold events.The rainstorm days of each station caused by TCs in different subsections were counted respectively.The results suggested that the rainstorm days of the subsections east of 118°E are much more than those west of 118°E.The larger values are primarily distributed at the subsections of[119,120°E)and[110,111°E).     

登陆中国大陆不同区间的热带气旋特征初步分析

利用地理信息系统及程序计算得到了1949—2008年登陆中国大陆的热带气旋(TC)登陆点经纬度信息,在此基础上对登陆中国大陆的TC进行分析,最终选择110～122°E海岸线为研究区域,7—9月为研究时段,且将110～122°E海岸线以1°E为间隔划分为12段,分析这12段海岸线登陆TC的基本特征发现:118°E以东的区间TC登陆前后平均维持时间及登陆前平均强度基本上为大于118°E以西的区间,登陆后平均强度东西两段相差不大;定义了TC登陆前(后)破坏潜力指数TDP1(TDP2),TDP1(TDP2)最大值出现在区间[119,120°E)([110,111°E));ENSO事件对7—9月登陆110～122°E段的TC频数、平均登陆点位置影响并不明显,对各区间登陆TC的影响也不尽相同;各区间平均TDP1冷暖事件年对比差别较大,平均TDP2在暖事件年基本上比冷事件年大;1961—2008年,各区间对应的暴雨总站次,118°E以东的区间要远大于以西的区间,就空间分布而言,较大值的分布出现在区间[119,120°E),[110,111°E)。     

A METHOD OF RAPID CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONE TRACKS OVER CHINA AND ITS APPLICATION

Using data of tropical cyclones making landfall in China between May and October each year during the 1951-2015 period from the Shanghai Typhoon Institute, China Meteorological Administration (CMA-STI) Tropical Cyclone (TC) Best Track Dataset, we developed a method of rapid classification of TC tracks based on their average movement velocities and noted three types of tracks: a westward type, a northwestward type, and a northward type. We compared the climate characteristics of the westward and northward types and discuss their corresponding causes. The results show that the westward and northward types account for more than 80% of all TCs making landfall in China. Their climate characteristics, such as the frequency, landfall intensity, duration over land, velocity over land, movement distance over land, and other changes, show both similarities and differences. Both TC types show significant increases in their over-land durations, indicating that the effects of these landfalling TCs are increasing. However, the causes of these two TC types are similar and different in certain respects. The changes in large-scale steering flows have significantly affected the frequencies and over-land velocities of the landfalling TCs of the westward and northward types. In addition, differences between the changes in formation locations of the westward and northward types may lead to significant difference in their landfall intensities.     

Tropical cyclone potential hazard in Southeast China and its linkage with the East Asian westerly jet

A new synthesized index for estimating the hazard of both accumulated strong winds and heavy rainfall from a tropical cyclone (TC) is presented and applied to represent TC potential hazard over Southeast China. Its relationship with the East Asian westerly jet in the upper troposphere is also investigated. The results show that the new TC potential hazard index (PHI) is good at reflecting individual TC hazard and has significantly higher correlation with economic losses. Seasonal variation of TC-PHI shows that the largest TC-PHI on average occurs in July-August, the months when most TCs make landfall over mainland China. The spatial distribution of PHI at site shows that high PHI associated with major landfall TCs occurs along the southeast coast of China. An East Asian westerly jet index (EAWJI), which represents the meridional migration of the westerly jet, is defined based on two regions where significant correlations exist between TC landfall frequency and zonal wind at 200 hPa. Further analyses show that an anomalous easterly steering flow occurred above the tracks of TCs, and favored TCs making landfall along the southeast coast of China, leading to an increase in the landfall TC when the EAWJ was located north of its average latitude. Meanwhile, anomalous easterly wind shear and positive anomaly in low-level relative vorticity along TCs landfall-track favored TC development. In addition, anomalous water vapor transport from westerly wind in the South China Sea resulted in more condensational heating and an enhanced monsoon trough, leading to the maintenance of TC intensity for a longer time. All of these environmental factors increase the TC potential hazard in Southeast China. Furthermore, the EAWJ may affect tropical circulation by exciting meridional propagation of transient eddies. During a low EAWJI phase in July-August, anomalous transient eddy vorticity flux at 200 hPa propagates southward over the exit region of the EAWJ, resulting in eddy vorticity flux convergence and the weakening in the zonal westerly flow to the south of the EAWJ exit region, producing a favorable upper-level circulation for a TC making landfall.     

基于风雨影响评估的深圳市热带气旋数据库系统

风雨影响评估是热带气旋预报预警服务中的一项重要工作,而热带气旋风雨影响的历史气候数据是支撑这一工作的重要依据。以深圳为例,提出了建立热带气旋数据库系统的技术思路,该系统实现了以下几种功能:1)热带气旋数据的后台自动入库;2)关键区和相似离度相结合的相似台风的自动检索和风雨影响分析;3)直观展示广东沿海各市登陆的热带气旋的风雨影响气候概况;4)热带气旋风雨影响等级的自动提示。通过该系统,预报员可以高效、快速地查询历史相似路径或相同登陆点的热带气旋风雨影响情况,从而为分析当前热带气旋可能造成的风雨影响评估提供参考依据。     

登陆台湾岛热带气旋强度和结构变化的统计分析

利用1949—2008年共60年的《台风年鉴》、《热带气旋年鉴》资料及CMA-STI热带气旋最佳路径数据集,2001—2008年美国联合台风警报中心(JTWC)热带气旋尺度相关资料及日本气象厅(JMA)的TBB资料,统计分析西北太平洋(包括南海)热带气旋(TC)在登陆台湾过程中强度和结构变化的基本特征,主要结论有:(1)TC登陆台湾时强度为台风及以上级别的样本数占总样本数约60%,主要出现在6—9月,东部登陆TC的强度一般比在西部登陆的强;(2)大部分TC在岛上维持6 h左右,登陆时最大风速≤5级和强度为超强台风的TC穿越台湾岛时移动比较缓慢;(3)126个登陆台湾的TC样本过岛后近中心海平面气压平均增加5.61 hPa,近中心最大风速平均减小3.58 m/s,在台湾东部地区登陆TC的衰减率比在西部登陆的大3倍左右;(4)TC在登陆台湾前6 h至离岛后6 h期间其8级和10级风圈半径均明显减小,TC形状略呈长轴为NE-SW向的椭圆状,而其最大风速的半径却逐渐增大;(5)TBB分析结果显示,TC登陆台湾前,其外围对流主要出现在南侧和西侧,结构不对称,登陆以后,TC北部及东部的对流显著发展,外围结构区域对称;但中心附近的强对流则从登陆前6 h开始逐渐减弱消失。表明TC穿越台湾过程中内核结构松散、强度减弱。     

A COMPOSITE STUDY OF RAINFALL ASYMMETRY OF TROPICAL CYCLONES AFTER MAKING LANDFALL IN GUANGDONG PROVINCE

Based on observed rainfall data, this study makes a composite analysis of rainfall asymmetry in tropical cyclones(TCs) after making landfall in Guangdong province(GD) during 1998—2015. There are 3.0 TCs per year on average making landfall in GD and west of GD(WGD) has the most landfall TCs. Most of TCs make landfall in June,July, August, and September at the intensities of TY, STS, and TS. On average, there is more rainfall in the southwest quadrant of TC in CGD(center of GD), WGD, and GD as a whole, and the maximum rainfall is located in the southwest near the TC center. The mean TC rainfall in the east of GD(EGD) leans to the eastern side of TC. The TC rainfall distributions in June, July, August, and September all lean to the southwest quadrant and the maximum rainfall is located in the southwest near the TC center. The same features are found in the mean rainfall of TD, TS, STS, TY,and STY. The maximum rainfall is mainly in the downshear of vertical wind shear. Vertical wind shear is probably the dominate factor that determines asymmetric rainfall distribution of TCs in GD. Storm motion has little connection with TC rainfall asymmetry in GD.     

登陆热带气旋路径和强度预报的效益评估初步研究

近年来有关热带气旋(TC)灾情的评估指标和方法的研究取得明显进展,但较少涉及TC预报对减少灾害损失的贡献(即效益)分析。基于中央气象台的TC实时路径和强度预报,针对登陆中国大陆的TC,初步分析了TC的路径和强度预报误差与其造成的直接经济损失之间的可能关系,并在此基础上建立了包含TC路径和强度预报误差的TC直接经济损失的预估模型。TC登陆前后24 h的路径和强度预报误差与TC所致直接经济损失均呈正相关关系;对于单个登陆TC而言,若24 h TC路径预报误差每减小1 km可减少因灾直接经济损失约0.97亿元,若强度预报每减小1 m/s可减少因灾直接经济损失约3.8亿元(以2014年为基准年)。可见,提高TC路径和强度预报精度对于减灾的效益巨大,且当前尤以提高强度预报能力的效益为佳。      

登陆我国过湖泊热带气旋的统计特征

利用1949～2001年热带气旋年鉴资料,对53年登陆我国并经过内陆湖泊的热带气旋特征进行统计分析.结果表明:登陆过湖泊热带气旋在陆上维持时间长,登陆时强度较强;湖泊地带能延缓登陆TC强度的衰减;热带气旋经过内陆湖泊时大多表现为中心气压维持不变或降低,风速增大;长江中游地区是登陆过湖泊热带气旋消失数最多的区域.     

AN OBSERVATIONAL STUDY ON DISTRIBUTION OF PRECIPITATION ASSOCIATED WITH LANDFALLING TROPICAL CYCLONES AFFECTING CHINA

In order to provide an operational reference for tropical cyclone precipitation forecast,this study investigates the spatial distributions of precipitation associated with landfalling tropical cyclones(TCs) affecting China using Geostationary Meteorological Satellite 5(GMS5)-TBB dataset.All named TCs formed over the western North Pacific that made direct landfall over China during the period 2001-2009 are included in this study.Based on the GMS5-TBB data,this paper reveals that in general there are four types of distribution of precipitation related to landfalling TCs affecting China.(a) the South-West Type in which there is a precipitation maximum to the southwestern quadrant of TC;(b) the Symmetrical South Type in which the rainfall is more pronounced to the south side of TC in the inner core while there is a symmetrical rainfall distribution in the outer band region;(c) the South Type,in which the rainfall maxima is more pronounced to the south of TC;and(d) the North Type,in which the rainfall maxima is more pronounced to the north of TC.Analyses of the relationship between precipitation distributions and intensity of landfalling TCs show that for intensifying TCs,both the maximum and the coverage area of the precipitation in TCs increase with the increase of TC intensity over northern Jiangsu province and southern Taiwan Strait,while decreasing over Beibu Gulf and the sea area of Changjiang River estuary.For all TCs,the center of the torrential rain in TC shifts toward the TC center as the intensity of TC increases.This finding is consistent with many previous studies.The possible influences of storm motion and vertical wind shear on the observed precipitation asymmetries are also examined.Results show that the environmental vertical wind shear is an important factor contributing to the large downshear rainfall asymmetry,especially when a TC makes landfall on the south and east China coasts.These results are also consistent with previous observational and numerical studies.     

1956～2012年浙闽登陆热带气旋降水精细化观测统计分析

选取我国东南沿海热带气旋登陆数目多、经济发达的浙江和福建两省,利用国家级地面气象站逐小时降水观测资料,结合热带气旋降水客观分离方法,对1956~2012年（共57年）浙、闽两省沿海登陆热带气旋降水开展客观分离,统计分析热带气旋登陆期间降水精细化时空分布特征。结果表明:热带气旋平均路径在登陆前6小时至登陆后24小时呈西北行,累积降水具有明显非对称分布特征,与主要水汽辐合区相吻合,登陆后24小时至48小时的降水分布与鄱阳湖水体以及局地地形有密切联系;伴随登陆进程,降水分布呈现显著变化,登陆前,浙、闽两省降水较强;登陆后,降水范围向内陆扩展到浙、闽两省以外地区;登陆点聚类分析指出,所有类别的较强降水时段均位于登陆前12小时至登陆后6小时,但不同类别的降水分布和演变特征具有显著差异,这种差异与局地地形和热带气旋环流所处位置关系密切;小时强降水统计分析显示,伴随着登陆进程强降水频次分布逐渐变化和向内陆地区推进,高频次强降水主要出现在登陆前、后6小时的浙、闽两省沿海地区,且以两省交界附近地区最为集中,与该地区明显的高大地形分布有着密切的关系。两省各台站由登陆热带气旋带来的小时降水极值差异较大,从10到143 mm均有分布,大部分极值在30至60 mm之间。其中,极值大于50 mm的站点主要分布在沿海地区,在浙、闽交界处较为集中,与小时强降水的频次分布一致。     

Mean Structure of Tropical Cyclones Making Landfall in Mainland China

The mean kinematic and thermodynamic structures of tropical cyclones （TCs） making landfall in main-land China are examined by using sounding data from 1998 to 2009. It is found that TC landfall is usually accompanied with a decrease in low-level wind speed, an expansion of the radius of strong wind, weakening of the upper-level warm core, and drying of the mid-tropospheric air. On average, the warm core of the TCs dissipates 24 h after landfall. The height of the maximum low-level wind and the base of the stable layer both increase with the increased distance to the TC center;however, the former is always higher than the latter. In particular, an asymmetric structure of the TC after landfall is found. The kinematic and thermodynamic structures across various areas of TC circulation diff er, especially over the left-front and right-rear quadrants （relative to the direction of TC motion）. In the left-front quadrant, strong winds locate at a smaller radius, the upper-level temperature is warmer with the warm core extending into a deep layer, while the wet air occupies a shallow layer. In the right-rear quadrant, strong wind and wet air dwell in an area that is broader and deeper, and the warmest air is situated farther away from the TC center.     

Cluster analysis of post-landfall tracks of landfalling tropical cyclones over China

In this paper, we apply finite-mixture-model-based clustering algorithms to cluster post-landfall tracks of tropical cyclones (TCs) making landfall over China. Because existing studies find that landfall surfaces or elevations affect post-landfall TC movements, we also take account of elevations in addition to time orders in this model. Our study reveals three clusters, with cluster 1 making landfall in Hainan province and moving across the western coast of Guangdong province. Most of the TC tracks in cluster 1 move over the ocean and make secondary landfalls over Yunnan province of China and Vietnam. Cluster 1 finally dissipates inland and moves westward as a result of the westward-shift subtropical high, westward steering flow, easterly vertical wind shear and strong mountainous blocking. Cluster 2 makes landfall over Guangdong and Fujian provinces. TCs in cluster 2 subsequently move inland and disappear due largely to westward-shift subtropical high, easterly steering flow, easterly vertical wind shear and relatively strong mountainous blocking. Cluster 3 makes landfall along the Fujian and Zhejiang coast and sustains a long period of time, recurving mostly to the mid-latitude region owing to the surrounding eastward-shift subtropical high, westerly vertical wind shear, weak mountainous blocking and westerly steering flow. Because cluster 2 is significantly associated with La Niña events, TCs more likely make landfall over southeastern China coast and move westward or northwestward without recurving. Cluster 3 sustains a longer time than clusters 1 and 2 in spite of its weak horizontal and vertical water vapor supply. TCs in cluster 3 interact actively with westerlies during the post-landfall period. However, we cannot observe any analogous interactions with the mid-latitude westerlies in clusters 1 and 2. TCs of clusters 1 and 2 are influenced by summer monsoon flows. Moreover, summer monsoon exerts a greater influence on cluster 1 than cluster 2. The composite 200 hPa divergence of cluster 3 is stronger than that of clusters 1 and 2. This explains to some degree why cluster 3 sustains longer than clusters 1 and 2 after making landfall.     

Autumn Tropical Cyclones over the Western North Pacific during 1949-2016: A Statistical Study

We used tropical cyclone (TC) best track data for 1949–2016, provided by the Shanghai Typhoon Institute, China Meteorological Administration (CMA-STI), and a TC size dataset (1980-2016) derived from geostationary satellite infrared images to analyze the statistical characteristics of autumn TCs over the western North Pacific (WNP). We investigated TC genesis frequency, location, track density, intensity, outer size, and landfalling features, as well as their temporal and spatial evolution characteristics. On average, the number of autumn TCs accounted for 42.1% of the annual total, slightly less than that of summer TCs (42.7%). However, TCs classified as strong typhoons or super typhoons were more frequent in autumn than in summer. In most years of the 68-yr study period, there was an inverse relationship between the number of autumn TCs and that of summer TCs. The genesis of autumn TCs was concentrated at three centers over the WNP: the first is located near (14°N, 115°E) over the northeastern South China Sea and the other two are located in the vast oceanic area east of the Philippines around (14°N, 135°E) and (14°N, 145°E), respectively. In terms of intensity, the eight strongest TCs during the study period all occurred in autumn. It is revealed that autumn TCs were featured with strong typhoons and super typhoons, with the latter accounting for 28.1% of the total number of autumn TCs. Statistically, the average 34-knot radius (R34) of autumn TCs increased with TC intensity. From 1949 to 2016, 164 autumn TCs made landfall in China, with an average annual number of 2.4. Autumn TCs were most likely to make landfall in Guangdong Province, followed by Hainan Province and Taiwan Island.

     

1949—2009年西北太平洋热带气旋气候特征

利用1949—2009年中国气象局热带气旋（TC:Tropical Cyclone）最佳路径数据集,对西北太平洋TC生成源地的时空分布、生成和登陆我国TC的年、月频数分布、强度分布和地理分布等气候特征进行统计分析。研究结果表明：在这61年中生成的TC呈减少趋势,登陆我国的TC数量比较稳定,不过近10年来登陆的较强TC数量却呈现出上升趋势;每年6—10月是TC高发期,强度等级越高的TC生成季节越偏晚,而8月是生成和登陆数量最多的月份;TC平均生命期随强度等级的增加而增大,且逐渐表现出单峰值分布特征;TC频数的地理分布以我国南海和菲律宾以东洋面为中心,向四周呈辐射状减少,近10年来其活动范围有所西伸加强。     

浙江省登陆热带气旋气候特征初探

利用52a(1949-2000年)西北太平洋热带气旋基本资料,分析了热带气旋在浙江省登陆的一般气候特征。在此基础上,将这些热带气旋分为入海类和消失类,从而进一步分析了热带气旋登陆后的强度变化、维持时间、消失位置等气候规律。     

A Potential Risk Index Dataset for Landfalling Tropical Cyclones over the Chinese Mainland (PRITC dataset V1.0)

A dataset entitled "A potential risk index dataset for landfalling tropical cyclones over the Chinese mainland" (PRITC dataset V1.0) is described in this paper, as are some basic statistical analyses. Estimating the severity of the impacts of tropical cyclones (TCs) that make landfall on the Chinese mainland based on observations from 1401 meteorological stations was proposed in a previous study, including an index combining TC-induced precipitation and wind (IPWT) and further information, such as the corresponding category level (CAT_IPWT), an index of TC-induced wind (IWT), and an index of TC-induced precipitation (IPT). The current version of the dataset includes TCs that made landfall from 1949–2018; the dataset will be extended each year. Long-term trend analyses demonstrate that the severity of the TC impacts on the Chinese mainland have increased, as embodied by the annual mean IPWT values, and increases in TC-induced precipitation are the main contributor to this increase. TC Winnie (1997) and TC Bilis (2006) were the two TCs with the highest IPWT and IPT values, respectively. The PRITC V1.0 dataset was developed based on the China Meteorological Administration's tropical cyclone database and can serve as a bridge between TC hazards and their social and economic impacts.     

ASYMMETRIC DISTRIBUTION OF CONVECTION ASSOCIATED WITH TROPICAL CYCLONES MAKING LANDFALL ON THE EAST CHINA COAST

The asymmetric distribution of convection associated with tropical cyclones making landfall on the east China coast is studied with black-body temperature (TBB) data from Fengyun-2 (FY-2) geostationary weather satellite. The convection in various quadrants of the TCs is examined for the period of -24 to 6 h relative to landfall. The convection to the southern side of the TCs was much more intense than that to the northern side during the whole landfall period. The convection to the western side of the TCs was stronger than that to the eastern side for the time -8 h before and at the landfall. After landfall, the situation reverses. The asymmetric convection of the TCs was partly due to the vertical wind shear and storm motion, and partly because the process of landfall restrained the convection in relevant quadrants. Besides, the orographic uplift along the east of China was favorable to the enhancement of convection in the eastern side of the TCs. From the characteristics of convective asymmetry of the TCs landing on the south and east of China, it is known that their main difference might be the included angle between the TC path and the coastline as well as the terrain along the coast.     

FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRACK OF TROPICAL CYCLONES AFTER LANDFALL IN EASTERN CHINA

The correlation and composite analysis are carried out in this paper to study major factors affecting the track of tropical cyclones (TCs) after their landfall in the east of China. The mid-tropospheric environmental steering flow is found to dominate the movement of a TC even after landfall, with the inertia and Coriolis force two other subordinates. A key region is discovered covering the east of China and Yellow Sea, in which the environmental flow significantly affects the movement of TCs making landfall in this part of China. When the subtropical high in this region strengthens and extends westward, accompanied by northward shrink of the westerly trough, the TC tends to move westward after landfall and disappear inland. However, when the subtropical high in this region weakens and shrinks eastward, accompanied by southward push of the westerly trough, the TC tends to recurve after landfall and re-enter the sea at a location to the north of the site of landfall. The environment before the landfall of a TC has little impact on its post-landfall track, which is sensitive to the environmental change 12 – 24 hours after landfall. A 6-hour lag is found between the environmental change and the movement of a TC after landfall.