Stability Dependence of Canopy Flows over a Flat Larch Forest

The dependence on atmospheric stability of flow characteristics adjacent to a very rough surface was investigated in a larch forest in Japan. Micrometeorological measurements of three-dimensional wind velocity and air temperature were taken at two heights above the forest, namely 1.7 and 1.2 times the mean canopy height h. Under near-neutral and stable conditions, the observed turbulence statistics suggest that the flow was likely to be that of the atmospheric surface layer (ASL) at 1.7h, and of the roughness sublayer (RSL) at 1.2h. However, in turbulence spectra, canopy-induced large coherent motions appeared clearly at both heights. Even under strongly stable conditions, the large-scale motions were retained at 1.2h, whereas they were overwhelmed by small-scale motions at 1.7h. This phenomenon was probably due to the enhanced contribution of the ASL turbulence associated with nocturnal decay of the RSL depth, because the small-scale motions appeared at frequencies close to the peak frequencies of well-known ASL spectra. This result supports the relatively recent concept that canopy flow is a superimposition of coherent motions and the ASL turbulence. The large-scale motions were retained in temperature spectra over a wider region of stability compared to streamwise wind spectra, suggesting that a canopy effect extended higher up for temperature than wind. The streamwise spacing of dominant eddies according to the plane mixing-layer analogy was only valid in a narrow range at near neutral, and it was stabilised at nearly half its value under stable conditions.     

Turbulence Intensity Parameters over a Very Complex Terrain

Detailed knowledge of turbulence structure is important for the understanding of atmospheric phenomena in the boundary layer, especially over complex terrain. In the present study, turbulence intensity parameters are analyzed for different conditions regarding stability, wind speed and wind direction over a mountainous region. The purpose of the analysis is to verify whether the observed parameters follow Monin–Obukhov similarity theory (MOST), despite the terrain heterogeneity. The dataset was collected during an experimental campaign at the Nova Roma do Sul site, in southern Brazil, with a micrometeorological tower located near a sharp slope, approximately 400 m high. The results show that the normalized standard deviations of the vertical velocity component as well as the normalized standard deviation of temperature follow Monin–Obukhov similarity for all stability regimes, regardless of the wind direction. However the normalized standard deviation of the horizontal components of the turbulent velocity obeys the similarity relationship only for a limited range of the stability parameters.     

Turbulent Mechanical Energy Budget in Stably Stratified Baroclinic Flows over Sloping Terrain

Analysis of second-moment budget equations in a slope-oriented coordinate frame exhibits the pathways of exchange between the potential energy of mean flow and the total turbulent mechanical energy. It is shown that this process is controlled by the inclination of the potential temperature gradient. Hence, this parameter should be considered in studies of turbulence in slope flows as well as the slope inclination. The concept of turbulent potential energy is generalized to include baroclinicity, and is used to explain the role of along-slope turbulent heat flux in energy conversions. A generalization of static stability criteria for baroclinic conditions is also proposed. In addition, the presence of feedback between the turbulent heat flux and the temperature variance in stably-stratified flows is identified, which implies the existence of oscillatory modes characterized by the Brunt–Väisäla frequency.     

复杂地形下多普勒雷达资料同化的研究

针对2010年7月16日四川地区一次强降雨过程,以1°×1°的NCEP再分析资料为背景场,四川923个国家级自动气象站逐时降雨资料为观测场,地形高度采用数字地形高程模型(DEM)的地形高度数据替代了模式地形数据,应用WRF模式及其三维变分同化系统,对成都、绵阳、达州、西昌、南充5部雷达反射率因子进行了直接同化试验。结果表明:同化反射率因子之后,各层嵌套初始场的水汽通量分布改变较小,但数值和范围改变明显,第一重嵌套水汽通量高值中心显著增强,800 hPa改变较500 hPa明显;同化试验、控制试验均能模拟出此次降雨过程;同化试验在降雨量值、面积、落区上较控制试验均有所改进,对四川盆地东北部的达州和巴中两市改进尤其明显;12 h降雨预报改进优于24h降雨预报。     

基于DEM的复杂地形气温空间插值研究

利用江西省87个国家气象观测站点1987—2016年月平均气温资料,结合数字高程模型(DEM),建立了一个基于江西省DEM的多元线性回归空间插值模型,并与传统的反距离权重法(IDW)、普通克里金插值法(OK)和协同克里金插值法(CK)进行空间插值精度和效果对比。研究表明:基于DEM的多元线性回归空间插值方法(MLR)的误差精度和插值效果均优于其他3种传统插值方法。江西省月(年)平均气温与纬度和海拔高度呈负相关,与经度呈正相关,与坡度、坡向无明显相关性;江西省月平均气温垂直递减率约为0.35—0.65℃/(100 m),年平均气温垂直递减率约为0.49℃/(100 m)。     

A Multiple-Cell Flat-Level Model for Atmospheric Tracer Dispersion over Complex Terrain

A multiple-cell flat-level tracer dispersion model is developed for atmospheric pollution study. The horizontal domain may be constructed with multiple-sized cells for varied resolution. The sequence of cells is arbitrary, as in unstructured grids, as long as no holes are left in the horizontal domain, which may be tailored in shape according to local orography. The vertical levels are truly flat and the level spacing may vary from level to level. The surface orography is included by removing cells from the bottom of the three-dimensional cell block. The arrangement of wind velocity and tracer concentration is similar to the Arakawa C grid. Advection and horizontal diffusion are formulated on each cell face, using tracer concentrations in the two cells that share the cell face. Pointer-orientated numerical loops are used to facilitate the arbitrary horizontal cell arrangement and orographic variation of vertical levels. A second-order upstream upper limiter advection scheme is developed for this model and numerically tested to be positive-definite and mass conserving. Vertical diffusion is solved with an implicit scheme and simplified vertical diffusivity, which is parameterised as a function of the mixing layer depth. The model is fast, compact, easy to implement and highly portable. It is suitable for studies ofmesoscale and small-scale atmospheric tracer dispersion over complex terrain, including steep slopes. The model is used to simulate traffic pollution in London, UK, and is compared with available observations.     

修正WRF次网格地形方案及其对风速模拟的影响

复杂地形区域风场模拟的准确率一直是风能研究领域的难点和重点。WRF模式是目前风能评估领域应用最广泛的天气数值模式之一,但该模式在复杂地形区域存在对平原、山谷风速高估且对山顶风速低估的系统性误差,并有研究建立次网格地形方案以订正误差。而次网格地形方案在不同水平分辨率下常出现错误的修正结果,该文基于高精度地形高程数据分析了方案失效的主要原因,发现其方程组中判断山体形态特征的阈值-20在过低和过高水平分辨率下均失去参考性。针对这一原因,将方案中影响关键参数C_t的地形高度算子与模式水平分辨率进行拟合,形成地形高度算子与水平分辨率相依赖的线性关系,获得不同分辨率下更适合的山体形态阈值。通过与自动气象站10 m风速对比分析了修正前后WRF对低层风速的模拟效果,结果显示:修正后的次网格地形方案能够分别在较低和较高分辨率下,部分矫正原方案错误的订正结果,使低层风速模拟更接近实况。修正后的次网格地形方案可为复杂地形区域开展高分辨率风场模拟提供参考。     

多元回归法在复杂地形风资源微尺度模拟中的应用

随着风电事业的发展,复杂地形下的风资源模拟成为一项重要的课题。利用广东沿海某海岛南部9个测风塔共22个测风高度的完整一年的测风资料及该海岛高分辨率的数字地形资料,采用地理空间因子的多元回归法进行风资源的微尺度模拟并与WASP软件的计算结果进行了比较。结果表明：（1）年平均风速与地理空间因子存在显著的相关关系;（2）模拟的年平均风速平均相对误差为3.2%,年平均风功率密度的平均相对误差为3.5%;（3）经假设检验,对无测站的地点的年平均风速模拟效果良好;（4）该方法和WASP软件计算的风资源大值区分布基本一致。     

复杂地形边界层风场的三维局地尺度数值模拟

设计了一个基于有限元方法的中γ尺度复杂地形条件下的三维非静力边界层风场数值模式,利用该模式对河南省登封市阳城工业区周围的实际三维地形进行了数值模拟,并将模拟结果与河南省气象科学研究所的实测资料进行了对比。结果表明,模式对峡谷地形的加速作用、山体的抬升与绕流均有较好的模拟,但是对背风坡涡旋的模拟不太理想。与实测资料的对比显示,在一定的条件下,模式可以得到较好的模拟结果。     

Wind Climate Simulation over Complex Terrain and Wind Turbine Energy Output Estimation

Summary A statistical-dynamical downscaling procedure is applied to investigate the climatological wind field over a complex terrain area in central Germany. The model domain, 80×87 km, is dominated by flat terrain in the westerly and northerly part and encompasses the Teuteburger Wald and the Wiehengebirge areas with hills up to 330 m a.m.s.l. in the southeasterly region. The downscaling procedure combines a large-scale regionally representative wind statistic and a high-resolution numerical atmospheric mesoscale model. A cluster analysis of a 12-years time series of radiosonde data provides 143 clusters each being a combination of the geostrophic wind components and the vertical temperature gradient. These parameter sets constitute the reference state for highly-resolved steady-state wind field simulations with a non-hydrostatic model. Weighting the resulting wind fields with the corresponding cluster frequency gives climatologically representative frequency distributions of the wind speed and -direction. By combining the wind speed frequency distribution with the power curve of wind turbines the yearly energy output of 46 wind turbines inside the simulation domain was calculated and compared to the actual production. No bias or systematic trend in the deviation was found. The relative differences for the smallest turbines reach 100 percent with a decreasing tendency to larger units. Received November 13, 1998     

复杂地形城市冬季大气污染的数值模拟研究

采用中尺度大气动力模式与大气扩散模式相结合的方法，针对复杂地形条件下兰州市冬季无明显冷空气入侵天气过程时段（1994年12月2－3日）的大气污染状况，进行污染物（二氧化硫和烟尘）浓度分布的数值模拟研究，分析了模拟的风场的气温层结随时间的变化以及污染物浓度的分布及其变化，进一步分析了模拟的风场和气温层结与污染物浓度分布的关系。结果表明，该模式系统对兰州市大气边界层结构及污染物浓度的分布有较好的模拟能力，并证明了该模式系统可适用于兰州市大气质量预测预报研究。     

Turbulence in Complex Terrain

Theoretical results and data are presented in order to describethe spectral modifications induced by the effects of surfaceinhomogeneity on the features of turbulent boundary-layer flows.The hill case is used by way of example, and atmospheric andlaboratory data in neutral conditions are discussed. Shear andblocking effects with different characteristics are shown to bepresent both upwind and over the hill top.     

Wind Flow Over Complex Terrain: A Historical Perspective and the Prospect for Large-Eddy Modelling

The development of our understanding of turbulent flow overcomplex terrain is described. Despite considerable advances, there are still gaps in our knowledge. Large-eddy simulation of such flows is now becoming possible. This may stimulate further advances but it is computationally very demanding. The application of this technique to flow over hills is discussed.     

复杂地形下黑河流域的太阳辐射计算

基于数字高程模型(DEM)数据,在充分考虑了地形因子对太阳直接辐射和散射辐射的影响后,实际计算了起伏地形下黑河流域的太阳辐射。在忽略地表和大气之间的多次反射后,地表太阳总辐射计为三项:按起伏坡面上实际入射角考虑的太阳直接辐射、经过下垫面天空视角因子订正的坡面天空散射辐射和考虑周围地形反射效应的附加辐射。计算结果表明:局地地形起伏对太阳直接辐射、总辐射空间分布的影响非常强烈,使得复杂地形下不同坡向间总辐射和直接辐射平均计算差额十分显著,且太阳天顶角从较小增大至中等大小时,这两种平均计算差额均加大一倍多;在较小和中等大小太阳天顶角下,不同坡向间总辐射平均计算差额,均较相同条件下直接辐射平均计算差额为小,这是因为总辐射还包括了天空漫射和邻近地形反射辐射因子,这两个因子和坡面上太阳入射方位的变化共同影响地表入射太阳辐射;起伏地形主要使得太阳辐射在局地区域内背阴、向阳坡向间发生显著的重新分配。因此,在复杂地形地区进行太阳辐射计算时必须考虑地形的影响。     

Correction of CMPAS Precipitation Products over Complex Terrain Areas with Machine Learning Models

Machine learning models were used to improve the accuracy of China Meteorological Administration Multisource Precipitation Analysis System (CMPAS) in complex terrain areas by combining rain gauge precipitation with topographic factors like altitude, slope, slope direction, slope variability, surface roughness, and meteorological factors like temperature and wind speed. The results of the correction demonstrated that the ensemble learning method has a considerably corrective effect and the three methods (Random Forest, AdaBoost, and Bagging) adopted in the study had similar results. The mean bias between CMPAS and 85% of automatic weather stations has dropped by more than 30%. The plateau region displays the largest accuracy increase, the winter season shows the greatest error reduction, and decreasing precipitation improves the correction outcome. Additionally, the heavy precipitation process’precision has improved to some degree. For individual stations, the revised CMPAS error fluctuation range is significantly reduced.     

引入低纬高原复杂地形因子的气象要素精细化估算模型

低纬高原地区的气象要素变化除了受大气环流因子的影响外,高程、坡度、坡向等地理因子的作用不可忽视.以云南省为例,应用云南省125个气象站的降水、温度、露点温度等气象资料,与各站点的经度、纬度、高程、坡向、坡度等地理因子建立关系模型,运用多元回归方法,求得回归系数,代入随机抽取的检验站点的地理因子回归方程式中,得出拟合量,...     

A Second-Order Closure for Neutrally Stratified Vegetative Canopy Flows

An existing second-order closure model is modified to include the effects on mean and turbulent motions of form and viscous drag in vegetative canopies. The additional physical mechanisms represented by the closure are viscous and pressure drag on canopy elements, their role in momentum absorption, in the creation of fine scale turbulent eddies and in enhancing the total viscous dissipation in the canopy airspace. Viscous dissipation is split into a standard 'isotropic contribution associated with the spectral eddy cascade and a foliage contribution associated with work against pressure and viscous drag on the foliage. Changes in the turbulent time scale that result from these mechanisms are included in the standard parameterisations of third moments and of the eddy cascade contribution to dissipation. The model is tested against a wind- tunnel 'wheat canopy, a corn canopy and a eucalypt canopy, a height range from 50 mm to 12.6 m. Model results show that the parameterisations of foliage interaction used in the closure are sufficiently robust to reproduce second-moment profiles within and above vegetative canopies to a high degree of accuracy without resorting to 'tuning of the model constants. The model also shows the natural emergence of two length scales, one associated with the familiar eddy cascade isotropic contribution to total dissipation and the other associated with the length scales of the canopy elements.     

复杂地形下山西高原太阳潜在总辐射时空分布特征

针对太阳辐射在不同区域及地形地貌条件下的差异,借鉴国内外太阳辐射最新研究成果,考虑地形和大气衰减因子及各种可能的影响因子,基于数字高程模型提取坡度、坡向以及地形遮蔽因子,建立了山西高原太阳潜在总辐射计算模型,进而利用纵跨山西南北的3个辐射观测站的5年逐日太阳总辐射晴空观测资料对模型计算结果进行了检验分析,检验结果表明模型适用可行.利用该模型计算分析了山西高原太阳潜在总辐射的时空变化以及地形因子影响下的变化特征,可望为区域小气候变化以及区域植被、农作物所应用的小气候指标提供重要的基础条件.