Measurements of Trace Substances in the Arctic Troposphere as Potential Precursors and Constituents of Arctic Haze

During two measuring campaigns in early spring 1994 and 1995 (March/April) and one campaign in summer 1994, measurements of ozone, PAN, sulfur dioxide, nitric acid, and particulate nitrate, sulfate, and ammonium (only 1995) were recorded in the Arctic. Observations were made by aircraft at various sites in the eastern and western Arctic. Ozone concentrations showed a steady increase with altitude both in spring and summer. During five flights in springtime, low ozone events (LOEs) could be observed near the surface and up to altitudes of 2000 m. SO₂ background concentrations, ranging from detection limit (0.5 nmol/m³) to 5 nmol/m³, were observed during both spring and summer. Distinct maxima up to 55 nmol/m³ in lower altitudes were only obtained in springtime. Concentrations of the organic nitrate PAN were within a similar range as those of the inorganic nitrate HNO₃ during spring campaigns. In contrast, concentrations of particulate nitrate were one half an order of magnitude lower. HNO₃ concentrations increased significantly with altitude. Evidently, HNO₃ was intruded from the stratosphere into the troposphere. Sulfate concentrations ranged between 5 and 30 nmol/m³; ammonium concentrations were obtained within a range from 10 to 50 nmol/m³.     

利用船测近海层湍流热通量资料验证OAFlux数据集

美国伍兹霍尔海洋研究所(Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,WHOI)的客观分析海气通量(Objectively Analyzed air-sea Fluxes,OAFlux)数据集中的近海层湍流热通量数据被公认为最可信,并被广泛地用于气候模式模拟结果检验。利用NOAA ETL(Environmental Technology Laboratory)两个固定观测站点的科学试验的船测通量数据库(TOGA COARE试验观测资料和KAWJEX试验观测资料),对OAFlux的热通量进行验证。结果表明:OAFlux的潜热通量普遍高于船测值,并且风速较大时,两者差异较大。风速对潜热通量的变化趋势起主导作用,海表和大气湿度差影响甚微。低风条件下,OAFlux的潜热通量和船测值差异则很小。海面湍流感热交换很弱,通量值本身依然受到风速的主导作用,但由于感热通量值与观测仪器误差十分接近,导致比较分析异常困难。分析结果表明:在上述两个观测试验期内,由于海表空气湿度和大气的湿度差变化不显著,海气相互作用的强度主要取决于海面风速的变化。     

雷暴大风过程中对流层中低层动量通量和动能通量输送特征研究

2014年5月31日北京发生一次雷暴大风过程。以雷达资料同化结果为初始场,对此次过程进行高分辨率数值模拟。采用非静力平衡和非地转平衡的经向动量方程和质量权重动能方程,利用模拟资料,对雷暴大风过程中经向动量和质量权重动能进行收支分析,以此来研究雷暴过程中对流层中低层动量通量和动能通量输送特征,讨论地面大风的可能成因。分析结果表明,在对流层中低层,经向动量通量散度是影响经向动量局地变化的主要强迫项。雷暴系统后部的入流把中低层的经向动量倾斜向下输送,系统前部对流云区中低层的下沉气流也向下输送经向动量。这两支下传动量通量先后与近地面经向动量的水平通量汇合,向系统前沿输送经向动量。在北京西北部地形阻挡作用下,经向动量通量在系统前端近地面辐合,促进那里的经向动量局地增长,有利于增强那里的南风。质量动能收支的特征与经向动量收支类似,在近地面层质量动能的局地变化主要是由质量动能通量散度引起的。系统后部入流把中层质量动能向下传输到近地面层,然后与近地面质量动能的水平通量汇合,向系统前沿输送质量动能。相对来说,近地面层经向动量和质量动能的水平通量比下传通量更重要,这主要与低层较强的东南急流有关。     

CO2湍流通量误差的修正和不确定性研究进展

目前国内外对能量和CO₂涡动相关通量的测量误差的谱修正缺乏一致性，导致各测量站之间的资料对比难以进行，给全球尺度资料的合成造成很大困难。因此在强调长期CO₂通量测量精度的同时，还应该注重确定对测量误差修正的首选方法和研究重点。该文主要介绍了两种用于修正测量仪器误差的谱方法；二维和三维的气流运动对通量误差的影响；资料处理中的误差；夜间CO₂通量的测量问题。     

绿洲灌溉对垂直湍流热通量影响的大涡模拟研究

为了研究湍涡对中尺度绿洲灌溉的响应,利用WRF模式大涡模拟模块（WRF-LES）在西北半干旱区绿洲区开展灌溉前和灌溉后两个大涡模拟试验（分别简称为BI和AI）,其中灌溉可能会改变绿洲非均匀强度。利用面积平均的办法计算湍流热通量并利用小波分析将湍流热通量模态分解到不同的尺度。结果表明灌溉增加了土壤湿度,引起绿洲内部非均匀强度增加,灌溉对垂直热通量以及通量频散都有较大影响。AI中的湍涡为网状,与BI中一致。AI与BI中的感热通量的频散高度都随着感热通量的减小而减小。AI与BI中感热通量小波能量谱尺度一致,但是BI中强度比AI小。潜热通量的频散高度依赖于感热通量,且潜热通量能量谱随高度减小。空间滞后相关系数的结果表明由于灌溉前地表加热较强,感热通量对地表热通量的响应高度在灌溉之前（BI）比灌溉后（AI）更高。灌溉后的通量模态的飘移距离小于灌溉前的。     

Turbulent Flux Measurements Above and Below the Overstory of a Boreal Aspen Forest

Turbulent flux measurements both above and beneath the canopy of a boreal aspen forest are described. Velocity skewness showed that, beneath the aspen canopy, turbulence was dominated by intermittent, downward penetrating gusts. Eulerian horizontal length scales calculated from integration of the autocorrelation function or spectral peaks were 9.0 and 1.4 times the mean aspen height of 21.5 m respectively. Above-canopy power spectral slopes for all velocity components followed the -2/3 power law, whereas beneath-canopy slopes were closer to -1 and showed a spectral short cut in the horizontal and vertical components. Cospectral patterns were similar both above and beneath the canopy. The Monin–Obukhov similarity function for the vertical wind velocity variance was a well-defined function of atmospheric stability, both above and beneath the canopy. Nocturnal flux underestimation and departures of this similarity function from that expected from Monin–Obukhov theory were a function of friction velocity. Energy balance closure greater than 80% was achieved at friction velocities greater than 0.30 and 0.10 m s-1, above and below the aspen canopy, respectively. Recalculating the latent heat flux using various averaging periods revealed a minimum of 15 min were required to capture 90% of the 30-min flux. Linear detrending reduced the flux at shorter averaging periods compared to block averaging. Lack of energy balance closure and erratic flux behaviour led to the recalculation of the latent and sensible heat fluxes using the ratio of net radiation to the sum of the energy balance terms.     

The Analysis of Turbulence Intensity and Reynolds Shear Stress in Wall-Bounded Turbulent Flows at High Reynolds Numbers

We investigated the turbulent intensities and Reynolds shear stress at high Reynolds number $({Re_\tau = 5 \times 10^{6}})$ in the atmosphere surface layer (ASL) through analyzing observations in near-neutral stratified conditions. The results show that with increasing Reynolds number the streamwise turbulent intensity increases linearly, and the peak of the Reynolds shear stress extends to a higher non-dimensional height, which means that the thickness of the logarithmic region increases. Furthermore, our results provide evidence for treating the ASL as a canonical turbulent boundary layer, the results of which can be extended and applied to higher Reynolds number wall turbulence in the ASL.     

The Signature of Sea Spray in the Hexos Turbulent Heat Flux Data

The role of sea spray intransferring heat and moisture across the air-sea interface has remained elusive. Some studies have reported that sea spray does not affect the turbulent air-sea heat fluxes for 10-m wind speeds up to at least 25 m s^-1, while others have reported important spray contributions for wind speeds as low as 12 m s^-1. One goal of the HEXOS (Humidity Exchange over the Sea) program was to quantify spray's contribution to the turbulent air-sea heat fluxes, but original analyses of the HEXOS flux data found the spray signal to be too small to be reliably identified amid the scatter in the data. We look at the HEXOS data again in the context of the TOGA-COARE bulk flux algorithm and a sophisticated microphysical spray model. This combination of quality data andstate-of-the-art modelling reveals a distinct spray signature in virtually all HEXOS turbulent heat flux data collected in winds of 15 m s^-1 and higher. Spray effects are most evident in the latent heat flux data, where spray contributes roughly 10% of the total turbulent flux in winds of 10 m s^-1 and between 10 and 40% in winds of 15–18 m s^-1. The spray contribution to the total sensible heat flux is also at least 10% in winds above 15 m s^-1. These results lead to a new, unified parameterization for the turbulent air-sea heat fluxes that should be especially useful in high winds because it acknowledges both the interfacial and spray routes by which the sea exchanges heat and moisture with the atmosphere.     

我国西南地区地面和低层大气臭氧的观测分析

本文介绍了1987—1989年在以重庆、成都和贵阳三地区为代表的西南地区进行了地面和低层大气臭氧的观测结果,给出了该地区大气臭氧时空分布的一些特征.分析表明,成都、重庆和贵阳等地区O_3浓度的时空分布及变化规律不尽相同,但都与前体污染物特征以及日照强度、大气层结稳定度.天气过程等密切相关.     

An Optimal Inverse Method Using Doppler Lidar Measurements to Estimate the Surface Sensible Heat Flux

Inverse methods are widely used in various fields of atmospheric science. However, such methods are not commonly used within the boundary-layer community, where robust observations of surface fluxes are a particular concern. We present a new technique for deriving surface sensible heat fluxes from boundary-layer turbulence observations using an inverse method. Doppler lidar observations of vertical velocity variance are combined with two well-known mixed-layer scaling forward models for a convective boundary layer (CBL). The inverse method is validated using large-eddy simulations of a CBL with increasing wind speed. The majority of the estimated heat fluxes agree within error with the proscribed heat flux, across all wind speeds tested. The method is then applied to Doppler lidar data from the Chilbolton Observatory, UK. Heat fluxes are compared with those from a mast-mounted sonic anemometer. Errors in estimated heat fluxes are on average 18 %, an improvement on previous techniques. However, a significant negative bias is observed (on average $-63\,\%$ ) that is more pronounced in the morning. Results are improved for the fully-developed CBL later in the day, which suggests that the bias is largely related to the choice of forward model, which is kept deliberately simple for this study. Overall, the inverse method provided reasonable flux estimates for the simple case of a CBL. Results shown here demonstrate that this method has promise in utilizing ground-based remote sensing to derive surface fluxes. Extension of the method is relatively straight-forward, and could include more complex forward models, or other measurements.     

A Sensitivity Study of Arctic Ice-Ocean Heat Exchange to the Three-Equation Boundary Condition Parametrization in CICE6

In this study, we perform a stand-alone sensitivity study using the Los Alamos Sea ice model version 6(CICE6) to investigate the model sensitivity to two Ice-Ocean(IO) boundary condition approaches. One is the two-equation approach that treats the freezing temperature as a function of the ocean mixed layer(ML) salinity, using two equations to parametrize the IO heat exchanges. Another approach uses the salinity of the IO interface to define the actual freezing temperature, so an equation describ...     

Modelling of the OASIS Energy Flux Measurements Using Two Canopy Concepts

Two land surface schemes, SCAM and CSIRO9, were used to model the measured energy fluxes during the OASIS (Observations At Several Interacting Scales) field program. The measurements were taken at six sites along a 100 km rainfall gradient. Two types of simulations were conducted: (1) offline simulations forced with measured atmospheric input data at each of the six sites, and (2) regional simulations with the two land surface schemes coupled to the regional climate model DARLAM.The two land surface schemes employ two different canopy modelling concepts: in SCAM the vegetation is conceptually above the ground surface, while CSIRO9 employs the more commonly used `horizontally tiled' approach in which the vegetation cover is modelled by conceptually placing it beside bare ground. Both schemes utilize the same below-ground components (soil hydrological and thermal models) to reduce the comparison to canopy processes only. However, the ground heat flux, soil evaporation and evapotranspiration are parameterised by the two canopy treatments somewhat differently.Both canopy concepts reproduce the measured energy fluxes. SCAM has a slightly higher root-mean standard error in the model-measurement comparison for the ground heat flux. The mean surface radiative temperature simulated by SCAM is approximately 1K lower than in the CSIRO9 simulations. However, the soil and vegetation temperatures (which contribute to the radiative temperature) varied more in the CSIRO9 simulations. These larger variations are due to the absence of a representation of the aerodynamic interactions between vegetation and ground.     

北京地区对流层中上部云和气溶胶的激光雷达探测

介绍了近年来研制的一台多波长激光雷达及其探测对流层高云和气溶胶的实验,并依据探测结果重点分析了北京2000年1月至4月对流层上部云和气溶胶在532 nm波长的消光系数分布特征.结果表明:从6 km至11 km的气溶胶光学厚度值在0.0152至0.0284之间变化,均值为0.0192.从6 km至11 km的云光学厚度值在0.014至0.23之间变化.观测到的单层高云的厚度最大为6 km.4月6日,近年来最强的一次沙尘暴袭击北京.4月7日北京地区无可见云,激光雷达探测结果表明,从4 km至10 km高度范围内,存在一层厚度约为6 km的气溶胶粒子层,消光系数峰值处于8 km附近,比晴天无云时的消光系数值约大一个数量级.估计这是一层沙尘气溶胶,系由远距离输送至北京形成的.     

Parameterization of Ozone Photolysis Frequency in the Lower Troposphere Using Data from Photodiode Array Detector Spectrometers

Spectroradiometers using photodiode array detectors (PDAs) are increasingly applied for airborne and ground-based atmospheric measurements of spectral actinic flux densities due to their high time resolution (less than one second). However they have limited sensitivity of ultraviolet (UV) radiation for wavelengths less than about 305 nm. This results in uncertainties of ozone photolysis frequencies derived from spectral actinic flux density measurements using PDA spectrometers. To overcome this limitation a parameterization method is introduced which extrapolates the data towards the wavelength range of limited sensitivity of the PDA spectrometers (less than about 305 nm). The parameterization is based on radiative transfer simulations and is valid for measurements in the lower troposphere. The components of the suggested parameterization are the lower threshold wavelength of the PDA spectrometer, the slant ozone column (ratio of the total ozone column and the cosine of the solar zenith angle), and the ambient temperature. Tests of the parameterization with simulated actinic flux density spectra have revealed an uncertainty of the derived ozone photolysis frequency of ±5%. Field comparisons of the parameterization results with independent measurements of the ozone photolysis frequency were within ±10% for solar zenith angles less than 70^∘. Finally the parameterization was applied to airborne measurements to emphasize the advantage of high time resolution of PDA spectrometers to study ozone photolysis frequency fields in inhomogeneous cloud condtitions.     

Effects of Coordinate Rotation on Turbulent Flux Measurements during Wintertime Haze Pollution in Beijing,China

Eddy-covariance observations from the Beijing 325-m meteorological tower are used to evaluate the effects of coordinate rotation on the turbulent exchange of momentum and scalars during wintertime haze pollution(January-February 2013). Two techniques are used in the present evaluation; namely, the natural wind coordinate(NWC) and the planar fit coordinate(PFC), with the latter being applied by means of two methods for linear regression(i.e., overall and sector-wise). The different techniques show a general agreement in both turbulent fluxes and transport efficiencies, especially evident at the lower, 140-m level above the ground(compared to the higher, 280-m level), perhaps implying that the selection of a technique for coordinate rotation(NWC or PFC) is less of a concern for a sufficiently low level, despite the complexities of urban terrain. Additionally, sector-wise regression is a recommended approach for practical application of the PFC in a complex urban environment subjected to particulate pollution, because this method is found to produce a better correlation between the mean vertical velocity at the 140- and 280-m heights.     

Vertical Heat Transfer in the Lower Atmosphere over the Arctic Ocean During Clear-sky Periods

A diagnostic study of heat transfer within the lower atmosphere and between the atmosphere and the surface of the Arctic Ocean snow/ice pack during clear-sky conditions is conducted using data from the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) field experiment. Surface heat budgets computed for four cloudy and four clear periods show that, while the net turbulent heat fluxes at the surface are small during the cloudy periods, during the clear-sky periods they are a considerable source of surface heating, balancing significant portions of the conductive heat fluxes from within the snow/ice pack. Analysis of the dynamics and thermodynamics of the lower atmosphere during the clear-sky periods reveals that a considerable portion of the heat lost to the surface by turbulent heat fluxes is balanced by locally strong heating near the atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) top due to the interaction of subsiding motions with the strong overlying temperature inversions surmounting the ABL. This heat is then entrained into the ABL and transported to the surface by turbulent mixing, maintained by a combination of vertical wind shear and wave-turbulence interactions. The frequency of stable, clear-sky periods, particularly during the winter, combined with these results, suggests that the downward transfer of heat through the lower atmosphere and into the surface represents an important component of the heat budgets of the lower atmosphere and snow/ice pack over the annual cycle     

南海卫星遥感海表湍流热通量资料的评估

利用现场观测资料、OAFlux的湍流热通量,评估了JOFURO（Japanese Ocean Flux Data Sets with use of Remote Sensing Observations）、HOAPS-2（Hamburg Ocean Atmosphere Parameters and Fluxes from Satellite data version 2）、GSSTF-2（Goddard Satellite-Based Surface Turbulent Fluxes version 2）3种卫星资料在南海区域的表现。3套卫星资料可以说各有千秋,总体而言JOFURO和GSSTF-2资料的空间分布和时间变化与OAFlux资料整体上较一致,但是这两套资料都在很大程度上低估了海盆平均的潜热和感热,前者低估约10%~20%,后者则可以达到50%以上。HOAPS-2资料与现场观测资料有较好的一致性,但在时间变化上和其他资料的差异则较大,特别是感热方面,季节变化振幅、年际变化位相等都与其他资料不一致。通过比较我们发现,海南岛周边以及南海南部区域估算的潜热和感热释放偏小是造成整体偏小的主要原因。     

我国北方地区对流层中下层臭氧收支

为了揭示我国北方地区对流层中下层臭氧(O₃) 的形成机理以及周边地区的污染输送对我国北方地区对流层中下层O₃收支的影响, 在与外场观测数据比较分析的基础上, 利用全球化学输送模式(MOZART-2) 采用收支分析方法定量分析了影响我国北方地区对流层中下层O₃的各个物理化学过程。结果表明:我国北方地区对流层下层O₃最重要的来源是光化学生成作用, 约占总来源的58.3%(41.5 Tg), 光化学生成反应中HO₂对于O₃生成的贡献最大; 最大的汇是干沉降过程, 约占总汇的43.2%(26.2Tg); 水平净输送作用对我国北方地区对流层中下层O₃收支的影响非常大, 在我国北方地区对流层下层, 41.6%左右的O₃来自水平净输送, 随高度增加, 水平输送影响增大, 我国北方地区对流层中层大约81.5%的O₃来自水平净输送。     

Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Chemistry of Reactive Halogen Compounds in the Lower Troposphere

This issue of the Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry contains a series of contributions describing recent developments in our understanding of the heterogeneous and homogeneous chemistry of reactive halogen compounds in the lower Troposphere. Twelve papers describe recent results in this very active area of research, were reported at the Annual Assembly of the European Geophysical Society 1998 in Nice, France, 20-24 April 1998. Considerable progress is documented on the elucidation of the various processes involved in the sources, transformation pathways and chemical consequences of the Reactive Halogen Species (RHS) in the troposphere.