Theoretical investigation of convective instability in inclined and fluid-saturated three-dimensional fault zones

The convective instability of pore-fluid flow in inclined and fluid-saturated three-dimensional fault zones has been theoretically investigated in this paper. Due to the consideration of the inclined three-dimensional fault zone with any values of the inclined angle, it is impossible to use the conventional linear stability analysis method for deriving the critical condition (i.e., the critical Rayleigh number) which can be used to investigate the convective instability of the pore-fluid flow in an inclined three-dimensional fault zone system. To overcome this mathematical difficulty, a combination of the variable separation method and the integration elimination method has been used to derive the characteristic equation, which depends on the Rayleigh number and the inclined angle of the inclined three-dimensional fault zone. Using this characteristic equation, the critical Rayleigh number of the system can be numerically found as a function of the inclined angle of the three-dimensional fault zone. For a vertically oriented three-dimensional fault zone system, the critical Rayleigh number of the system can be explicitly derived from the characteristic equation. Comparison of the resulting critical Rayleigh number of the system with that previously derived in a vertically oriented one has demonstrated that the characteristic equation of the Rayleigh number is correct and useful for investigating the convective instability of pore-fluid flow in the inclined three-dimensional fault zone system. The related numerical results from this investigation have indicated that: (1) the convective pore-fluid flow may take place in the inclined three-dimensional fault zone; (2) if the height of the fault zone is used as the characteristic length of the system, a decrease in the inclined angle of the inclined fault zone stabilizes the three-dimensional fundamental convective flow in the inclined three-dimensional fault zone system; (3) if the thickness of the stratum is used as the characteristic length of the system, a decrease in the inclined angle of the inclined fault zone destabilizes the three-dimensional fundamental convective flow in the inclined three-dimensional fault zone system; and that (4) the shape of the inclined three-dimensional fault zone may affect the convective instability of pore-fluid flow in the system.     

Effect of Material Anisotropy on the Onset of Convective Flow in Three-Dimensional Fluid-Saturated Faults

In order to investigate the effect of material anisotropy on convective instability of three-dimensional fluid-saturated faults, an exact analytical solution for the critical Rayleigh number of three-dimensional convective flow has been obtained. Using this critical Rayleigh number, effects of different permeability ratios and thermal conductivity ratios on convective instability of a vertically oriented three-dimensional fault have been examined in detail. It has been recognized that (1) if the fault material is isotropic in the horizontal direction, the horizontal to vertical permeability ratio has a significant effect on the critical Rayleigh number of the three-dimensional fault system, but the horizontal to vertical thermal conductivity ratio has little influence on the convective instability of the system, and (2) if the fault material is isotropic in the fault plane, the thermal conductivity ratio of the fault normal to plane has a considerable effect on the critical Rayleigh number of the three-dimensional fault system, but the effect of the permeability ratio of the fault normal to plane on the critical Rayleigh number of three-dimensional convective flow is negligible.     

Theoretical and numerical analyses of convective instability in porous media with upward throughflow

Exact analytical solutions have been obtained for a hydrothermal system consisting of a horizontal porous layer with upward throughflow. The boundary conditions considered are constant temperature, constant pressure at the top, and constant vertical temperature gradient, constant Darcy velocity at the bottom of the layer. After deriving the exact analytical solutions, we examine the stability of the solutions using linear stability theory and the Galerkin method. It has been found that the exact solutions for such a hydrothermal system become unstable when the Rayleigh number of the system is equal to or greater than the corresponding critical Rayleigh number. For small and moderate Peclet numbers (Pe ⩽ 6), an increase in upward throughflow destabilizes the convective flow in the horizontal layer. To confirm these findings, the finite element method with the progressive asymptotic approach procedure is used to compute the convective cells in such a hydrothermal system. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Theoretical and numerical analyses of pore-fluid flow focused heat transfer around geological faults and large cracks

In this paper, theoretical and numerical methods are used to investigate pore-fluid flow focused temperature distribution patterns around geological faults and cracks of any length-scales in hydrothermal systems. If the far field inflow is uniform and the long axis of an elliptical fault of any length-scale is parallel to the far field inflow direction, a complete set of analytical solutions has been presented for the pore-fluid velocity, stream function and excess pore-fluid pressure around the elliptical fault embedded in fluid-saturated porous media. Because the analytical solutions are explicitly expressed in the conventional Cartesian coordinate system, not only can they be used to gain a theoretical insight into the pore-fluid flow patterns around geological faults and large cracks, but also they can be used as valuable benchmark solutions for validating any numerical methods. After a finite element computational model is validated by comparing the numerical solutions with the present analytical solutions, it is used to investigate pore-fluid flow focused heat transfer around geological faults in hydrothermal systems. Some interesting conclusions in relation to the effects of geological faults on pore-fluid flow focused heat transfer have been made through both the theoretical and the numerical analyses.     

Computational simulation of seepage instability problems in fluid-saturated porous rocks: Potential dynamic mechanisms for controlling mineralisation patterns

Pore-fluid flow associated with seepage instabilities can play an important role in controlling large mineralisation patterns within the upper crust of the Earth. To demonstrate this process, two kinds of seepage instability problems in fluid-saturated porous rocks are considered in this paper. The first kind of seepage instability problem is caused by the temperature-induced buoyancy of pore fluid, so that it can be called the buoyancy-driven seepage instability problem, while the second kind of seepage instability problem is caused by chemical dissolution reactions that are commonly encountered in the upper crust of the Earth, so that it can be called the chemical-dissolution-driven seepage instability problem. After the mathematical governing equations of and computational methods for these two kinds of seepage instability problems are introduced, two numerical examples are used to elucidate how and why these two kinds of seepage instabilities can provide favorable places for the formation of large mineralisation patterns within the upper crust of the Earth. The related computational simulation results have demonstrated that: (1) the convective pore-fluid flow caused by the buoyancy-driven seepage instability not only can dissolve minerals at the lower part of the upper crust, but also can transport the dissolved minerals from the lower part to the upper part of the upper crust, resulting in large mineralisation patterns near the surface of the Earth's upper crust. (2) The chemical-dissolution-driven seepage instability in fluid-saturated porous rock can provide some favorable places, such as finger-like channels created by porosity enhancement in the porous rock, for the formation of large mineralisation patterns within the upper crust of the Earth.     

北方岩溶区断裂带水文地质性质及结构模型

断层带结构和内部流体流动特性是水文地质研究领域的难点问题。石油地质领域,在油气运移与成藏方向已形成较成熟的断层封闭性定量评价技术手段。相比较,断裂的水文地质性质研究尚停留在断裂的力学性质对断层导水、阻水特性的定性评价阶段,尚未详细开展断裂带结构、渗透性各向异性等方面的研究工作。文章梳理总结国外断裂带水文地质性质研究中关于结构组成、断裂带演化、渗透率影响因素等方面的研究成果,引入断裂带渗透率结构模型,并以中国北方岩溶区碳酸盐岩与碎屑岩互层含水岩组为例,构建断裂带水文地质结构模型。断裂带研究尺度和精度不同、断裂带发育部位不同,导致其结构及水文地质性质亦不相同,如何建立起精确、典型的断裂带水文地质结构模型,需要各领域数据共享及多学科融合共同开展研究工作。      

川西地区地质灾害发育特征与时空分布规律

川西地区受青藏高原隆升和发育于青藏高原的大江大河深切割等作用,共发育地质灾害16411处,以滑坡和泥石流为主,是我国地质灾害高风险地区。本文采用资料收集、数理统计、Arcgis软件分析等方法分析发现,川西地质灾害具有成因机制复杂,突发性、群发性与链生性、危害大等特点。形成机理差异大,滑坡变形模式以滑移-拉裂、蠕滑-剪断、倾倒折断等模式为主;泥石流形成机理主要为土力-水力驱动型和堵溃型;崩塌失稳主要表现为滑移式、倾倒式和坠落式。发育分布规律在低山和中山区呈带状,和沿活动断裂带和深切河谷呈线状集中分布;受地震和强降雨影响,地质灾害年际变化大,2008、2009、2013年、2017年地质灾害频发、高发和群发期。     

海底采矿覆岩变形破坏特征及临界开采上限的物理模拟试验研究

海底赋存大量未开采的矿产资源,利用前景广阔。与陆地采矿相比,海底采矿受上覆水体威胁巨大。因此,准确掌握采空区上覆围岩变形破坏规律,设置合理的顶部预留隔水矿柱,对海下采矿工程安全、高效生产具有重要意义。本文以山东三山岛金矿新立矿区这一典型的海底矿床为研究对象,基于滨海矿山复杂的工程地质特征,采用室内地质力学模型试验的方法,重现了海下充填开采过程,阐明了动态开采条件下海底矿山采空区围岩变形破坏规律和特征。试验结果表明,三山岛新立矿区的临界开采高度为- 85 m,顶部预留隔水矿柱的最小厚度为50 m。若开采超过该临界值,采空区和顶部含水层将发生贯通性破坏,其失稳模式为断层活化。研究成果可为新立矿区预留矿柱高度的选取提供理论基础,也可为相似地质条件下矿山安全开采提供参考。     

则木河断裂带灾害效应及致灾模式研究

则木河断裂带位于青藏高原东南缘,川滇菱形地块东边界的突起上,为大型左旋走滑活动断裂,因其所处的特殊构造部位、强烈的地壳形变与断裂活动,从而具有地形复杂、构造强烈、地震活跃、次生地质灾害严重的特点。大箐断层在则木河断裂带次级断裂中活动速率最大,地处断陷河谷盆地和大箐梁子隆起区,且大箐梁子为1850年7.5级地震震中和断层枢纽运动中心,河谷保留冰川活动的遗迹,地质灾害发育,因此将大箐断层作为研究对象具有良好的典型性和代表性。通过现场调查,依据孕育地灾的地质背景条件,斜坡在地震动力作用下的响应特征和斜坡失稳的成因机制,将断裂致灾模式分为3大类,7亚类,共15种类型。大类的划分主要依据地质灾害的类型,亚类考虑灾害动力响应过程及斜坡失稳演化模式,是斜坡失稳破坏最显著的差异;小类的划分主要依据坡体的地质结构,是灾害失稳具体形式上的差异。本文较为系统地揭示了大箐断层地质灾害的成因机制及致灾模式。     

北京市山区泥石流灾害的发育特征及预报方法探讨

北京山区泥石流灾害较为发育。泥石流分布地域广泛,但相对集中于部分乡镇、主干断裂构造带附近或几组断裂构造交汇部位、坚硬岩石分布区、末级和二级沟谷以及降雨高值区内,且多发生在7-8月份暴雨季节。受地形地貌、地质条件、降雨分布、土壤类型、气温条件以及植被覆盖程度等影响明显。对于泥石流的预报,目前主要依据的是临界雨量值。本文通过认真研究北京地区泥石流的发育规律,深入分析了泥石流的形成条件和影响因素,并在此基础上对北京地区泥石流预报方法进行了初步探讨。建立了综合考虑地形地貌、地质条件、土壤类型以及降雨情况等因素的判断公式,并就如何开展北京地区泥石流预报工作提出了建议。     

遥感图象在评价天柱金矿带中的意义

天柱金矿带至今已发现脉金、砂金矿(化)点数十处。矿带位于雪峰弧形构造西南段.地层为一套呈北东向展布的震旦纪浅变质岩系。全区为一复式构造,呈北东—南西向展布,次一级背斜、向斜发育,断裂构造更为发育.矿带遥感图象具丰富的地质构造信息,尤以线性构造更为丰富,经地质解译,矿带内的断裂构造规模增大、数量增多,提示了金矿与构造,特别是与断裂构造的关系,给金矿带的综合评价提供了新的依据.矿带受北东向构造,矿床则受北西向、北西西或东西向断裂构造控制,并与环形构造也有一定的关系.地质信息,无疑给天柱金矿带的综合评价及远景区的预测提供了新的依据.     

Special features of heat flow in transform faults of the North Atlantic and Southeast Pacific

The paper reports on the morphostructure and heat flow in zones of transform faults of the North Atlantic and the Southeast Pacific, focusing on the fundamental difference between heat flow in active and inactive parts of the faults. In the active parts, which are located between segments of the mid-ocean ridge (MOR), the measured heat flow is close to that observed in the rift zones of MORs. The heat flow is considered a joint effect of the thermal conductivity of the oceanic crust and convective heat and mass transfer by thermal waters inside the oceanic crust. In the inactive parts of the faults, with distance from the MOR, the heat flow decreases to the background rates typical of thalassocratons. The sedimentation rate in a fault zone and conductive heat flow refraction resulting from the heterogeneous thermal characteristics of the geological section are the factors that deflect heat flow.     

Precise temperature monitoring in boreholes: evidence for oscillatory convection? Part II: theory and interpretation

In the previous part of this work (Cermak, Safanda and Bodri, this volume p.MMM) we have described experimental data and quantified the heterogeneity features of the microtemperature time series. The spectral analysis and the local growth of the second moment technique revealed scaling structure of all observed time series generally similar and suggested the presence of two temperature forming processes. The longer-scale part can be attributed to the heat conduction in compositional and structural heterogeneous solid rocks, further affected by various local conditions. Short-scale temperature oscillations are produced by the intra-hole fluid convection due to inherent instability of water column filling the hole. Here we present how the observational evidence is supported by the results of the computer simulations. The exact modes of intra-hole convection may be different, ranging from quasi-periodic (“quiescent”) state to close of turbulence. As demonstrated by numerical modeling and referred on laboratory experiments, at higher Rayleigh numbers the periodic character of oscillation characteristic for “quiescent” regime is superseded by stochastic features. This so called “oscillatory” convection occurs due to instability within the horizontal boundary layers between the individual convectional cells. In spite of the fact that the basic convective cell motion is maintained and convection is characterized by slow motion, the oscillatory intra-hole flow and corresponding temperature patterns exhibit typical features of turbulence. The idea of boundary layer instability as a source of stochastic temperature fluctuations could explain many distinct features of borehole temperatures that previously cannot be interpreted.     

Disparity between measured and BSR heat flow in the Xisha Trough of the South China Sea and its implications for the methane hydrate

We calculate the heat flow from the depth of bottom-simulating seismic reflectors (BSRs) on a seismic profile in the Xisha Trough of the South China Sea, and compare them with the probe heat flow measurements. The BSR heat flow turn out to be 32–80 mW/m², significantly lower than the measurements of 83–112 mW/m². Such big disparity cannot be ascribed only to the errors from parameters (parameter errors) that traditionally believed to influence the BSR heat flow. Besides the parameter errors, we discuss emphatically the errors coming from the theoretical assumption for the BSR heat flow determination (theoretical errors), which occur when the BSR depth does not coincide with the base of the methane hydrate stability zone (MHSZ). If BSR stays bellow the base of MHSZ, lying at the top of free gas zone, the derived heat flow would be underestimated. Compared with the parameter errors, the theoretical errors would be relatively larger in some geological settings. The disparity between measured and BSR heat flow in the Xisha Trough might be mainly due to the theoretical error. Based on the theoretical model, assuming that the BSR lying at the top of the free gas zone, the methane flux along the Xisha seismic profile is estimated, and the thickness of the methane hydrate occurrence zone is predicted.     

断裂带的结构特征及其对油气的输导和封堵性

断裂带是具有复杂结构的三维地质体,其内部可以划分为低渗透性的滑动破碎带、高渗透性的诱导裂缝带等具有不同物性特征的结构单元类型;受各种地质条件和因素的控制,不同性质及活动强度的断裂带、断裂的上下盘、同沉积断裂的不同深度,其断裂带内部结构特征存在差异,这导致了断裂具有对油气输导、封堵的双重性和时空差异:诱导裂缝带可成为油气运移的通道,而滑动破碎带则具有较强的横向分隔性;同沉积断裂下部对油气的横向封堵性要明显强于上部;断裂活动早中期对油气的输导性要强于晚期及断裂活动停滞期。精细刻画盆地内部断裂带内部结构特征对于分析断裂在油气运聚中所起的作用具有重要意义。     

地震断层摩擦残余热异常测量方法探讨———以WFSD- 1钻孔温度测量为例

以汶川地震断裂带科学钻探工程WFSD-1钻孔高精度相对温度梯度测量确定汶川地震断层为例,探讨了地震断裂带断层摩擦残余热温度测量方法。利用WFSD-1钻孔相对温度梯度温度测量取得的科学数据进行分析,发现在400~500 m、580~610 m及620~750 m三个测量段内存在温度正异常。结合地质资料综合分析,判定400~500 m、620~750 m段温度异常可能由地层热导率差异引起,并非断层摩擦残余热异常,判定位于不透水断层泥中温度异常深度580~610 m范围为断层主滑移带位置。      

瑞利波勘探技术在探测瓦斯聚集区域中的应用

在煤矿生产过程中,煤与瓦斯突出的问题经常发生,我国瓦斯灾害已成为煤矿群死群伤的头号杀手。煤与瓦斯突出是地应力、瓦斯、煤体结构等诸因素综合作用的结果。其中,地质构造因素起着主导控制作用。地质构造复杂的区域通常属于瓦斯灾害易发区域。发生煤与瓦斯突出的位置,多与地质构造破坏带有关,或发生在小断层,或发生在小背斜褶曲,或发生在裂隙带。笔者简要介绍了一种探测有地质构造区域的方法——瑞利波探测法。该方法利用了瑞利波的频散特性与岩土的物理力学性质的相关性的原理,通过对井下实地采集的数据进行分析、处理、解释,所预测的异常区域与实际的瓦斯卸压孔所显示的异常区域相符,是一种有效的探测方法,对保证煤矿安全生产有指导作用。     

Caving-induced fault reactivation behaviour and its effects on mining safety with a multiple seam context

Caving-induced fault reactivation and its effects on caving process are widely recognized as serious safety issues in mining and tunnelling industry. In this study, the effects of a variety of factors (i.e. friction coefficient, stick–slip instability, geological structure, pre-mining status, mining and its induced effects) that might exert an influence on fault dynamic behaviour of a 5-seam coal mine are investigated using practical mine-wide finite element numerical models with a normal fault. Based on the research outcomes on R-minimum-based finite element modelling of earthquake dynamics, the node-to-point contact strategy and the nonlinear friction contact law have been used here to simulate and analyse the caving-induced stick–slip frictional instability along the fault and related effects. The simulation results show that: (1) stress distribution before mining is relatively uniform around the fault for a homogenous rock material case, while stress concentration appears around the fault for the model with contrasting rock material properties; (2) the multiple-layered models are in favour of fault reactivation than models with only one material for whole strata; (3) the fault reactivation scale (i.e. dynamic relative motion and fault slip) induced by caving activity is significantly affected by rock mass strength, caving depth and its relative position to the fault. As caving progresses deeper and closer to the fault, the fault reactivation scale increases. Meanwhile, the fault in low strength strata is much more sensitive to fault slip behaviour; (4) seismic source parameters, namely seismic moment and moment magnitude, are adopted to evaluate the magnitude of caving-induced seismicity based on numerical results and fault slip risk and magnitude increase as fault reactivation scale expands; (5) during the caving stage, the failure zone initiates, develops and eventually connects the reactivated fault to the working area, presenting asymmetric failure pattern around the caving zone. The failure zone is obviously larger for the side closer to the fault than the other side due to caving-induced fault reactivation effects. This could help in better understanding fault reactivation and rock failure behaviours towards an optimised design of caving in a faulted region.

     

胶东焦家断裂带蚀变岩非镜像对称特征及其地质意义

焦家断裂蚀变带是胶东地区最重要的控矿构造之一。该断裂带控制的矿床是创立“焦家式”金矿理论的重要实例基础。目前,焦家断裂带累计探明Au资源储量超过1200 t,并且还在不断增加,展现了深部重要的勘查和研究价值。焦家断裂带控制的矿体主要赋存在主断面下盘,断裂带发育于花岗岩中时,上盘发育钾长石化花岗岩、绢英岩化花岗岩、黄铁绢英岩化花岗质碎裂岩、(黄铁)绢英岩质碎裂岩,下盘发育黄铁绢英岩质碎裂岩、黄铁绢英岩化花岗质碎裂岩、黄铁绢英岩化花岗岩和钾化花岗岩,蚀变类型在主断面两侧呈现对称分布特征。但是在岩性特征、结构构造、蚀变强度、化学成分等方面差异明显,表现出非镜像对称特征。上盘蚀变岩厚度大于下盘,下盘花岗岩的构造破碎程度比上盘花岗岩更严重;断裂带上盘黄铁矿含量低、一般无矿化显示,下盘黄铁矿含量高,出现金矿化;断裂带上盘的中生代花岗岩中韧性变形不发育,以脆性破裂为主,下盘发育明显的韧性变形;断裂带上下盘不同蚀变带的成矿元素Au,矿化剂元素S,成矿伴生元素Ag、Pb、Zn,亲石分散元素Ba、Sr以及主量元素Na2O、MgO含量具有差异性,指示焦家断裂带主断裂面两盘经历了不同的成矿作用过程,下盘花岗岩的热液蚀变作用与成矿作用的关系更为密切。依据焦家断裂带不同蚀变带元素的非镜像对称性特征,可利用上、下盘花岗岩和构造蚀变带的地球化学标志识别矿体或者不同蚀变带的位置,对认识“焦家式”金矿床的成因机制、预测深部成矿前景、指导深部找矿具有重要理论和实际意义。     

徐家围子断陷构造地质特征研究新进展

在徐家围子断陷深层连片三维地震精细解释的基础上,结合前人的研究成果,系统的刻画了深大断裂的性质、产状和时空分布规律。从区域构造应力场着手,详细剖析了徐家围子断陷的构造地质特征,重新构建了深大断裂体系。依据剖面特征和断陷的地质结构,首次在徐家围子断陷内解释出两条深大走滑断裂带,发现深大走滑断裂控制了营城组火山岩的形成和分布。明确了徐家围子断陷"两凹夹一隆、东西分带、南北分块"构造格局的动态演化过程及其控制因素。详细剖析了断陷期地层的沉积发育过程、后期改造过程以及现今赋存特征。为庆深气田火山岩储层分布规律预测奠定了基础。