In situ X-ray micro-CT for investigation of damage evolution in black shale under uniaxial compression

Crack damage evolution of shale is crucial to the hydraulic fracturing treatment and engineering stability. Although many effects have been done on the macroscopic characteristics of shale, yet the microscopic failure mechanism is not well understood. A uniaxial compressive test on black shale was conducted under topographic monitoring using in situ X-ray micro-tomography (µCT). A series of high-resolution reconstruction images were obtained by carrying out CT scans at six key points throughout the test to obtain the internal structure of shale sample. In addition, the CT values for the purpose of crack damage evolution in shale were identified. Clear 2D/3D CT images, CT value analysis and image segmentation analysis reveal that the sample experiences compression, damage, cracking, crack propagation, and collapse stages. Crack geometry and distribution in the shale sample is visualized by rendered CT images, and a combined tension and shear failure mode is observed from the fracture rose diagram. This work suggests that formation and propagation of fractures are influenced by the stratified structure and weak cementation medium between layers.     

A three-dimensional numerical investigation of the fracture of rock specimens containing a pre-existing surface flaw

Three-dimensional surface crack initiation and propagation in two kinds of heterogeneous rocks were numerically investigated via parallel finite element analysis using a supercomputer. Numerically simulated rock specimens containing a pre-existing flaw were subjected to uniaxial compression until failure. The initiation and propagation of wing cracks, anti-wing cracks, and shell-like cracks were reproduced by numerical simulations. The numerically simulated results demonstrate that the further propagation of wing cracks and shell-like cracks stop due to their wrapping (curving) behavior in three-dimensional spaces, even if the applied loads continue to increase. Furthermore, rock heterogeneity could significantly influence crack propagation patterns and the peak uniaxial compressive strengths of rock specimens. Moreover, anti-wing cracks only appeared in relatively heterogeneous rocks, and the peak uniaxial compressive strengths of the specimens were observed to depend on the inclination of the pre-existing flaw. Finally, the mechanism of surface crack propagation is discussed in the context of numerically simulated anti-plane loading tests, wherein it was identified that Mode III loading (anti-plane loading) does not lead to Mode III fracture in rocks due to their high ratio of uniaxial compressive strength to tensile strength. This finding could explain the lateral growth of an existing flaw in its own plane, which is a phenomenon that has not been observed in laboratory experiments.     

单轴压缩载荷作用下双裂隙扩展的CT扫描试验

由于精选后的陶瓷材料与岩石性质相似,因此选择陶瓷作为基本材料制作中部含2条圆币状裂隙的试件,进行单轴压缩荷载作用下的CT实时扫描试验,研究试件内双裂隙的扩展和损伤演化规律。采用3种不同区域划分方案,通过CT数、CT方差和CT图像的对比,分析上、下裂隙及岩桥区域不同的扩展状况。分析表明,上裂隙区域一直以压密为主,扩展很小,对试件破坏影响较小;下裂隙区域扩展剧烈,最终形成了宏观裂纹,对试件的破坏影响较大;当上下裂隙之间的中心距离等于4倍的裂隙半径时,裂隙的扩展过程将与裂隙自身参数有关,几乎看不出裂隙之间的相互作用。     

Quantitative analysis of meso-damage evolution for shale under in situ uniaxial compression conditions

In order to investigate the meso-damage evolution of shale, four uniaxial compressive tests were conducted using X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) equipment. Two of the four samples were conducted the in situ compression tests, from which a series of CT images at different stress levels were got during the loading process. Based on those CT images, a new damage variable was first proposed to quantitatively analyze the damage evolution of shale under uniaxial compression condition. Analysis results show that the evolution of the damage variable is consistent with both the mesoscopic CT images and the macroscopic stress–strain, which can well characterize the meso-damage evolution of shale. Additionally, the parameters of crack area and crack length were obtained to quantitatively describe the cracking characteristics. The statistical results demonstrate that the distributions of crack are closely related to the scanning stress levels and the scanning elevations. These quantitative conclusions are important to understand the meso-damage evolution and the cracking mechanism of shale.     

泥页岩单轴抗压破裂特征及UCS影响因素

正确认识泥页岩单轴抗压破裂特征及UCS影响因素对探究泥页岩破裂机制、钻完井设计、压裂评价、微裂缝预测、测井解释及地震响应等方面均具有重要参考价值。本文在对国内外近些年有关泥页岩单轴抗压及UCS研究系统调研及近期研究成果全面分析基础上,对泥页岩破裂特征及UCS影响因素进行了综合分析。研究结果表明,泥页岩单轴加载曲线的非弹性段变形机制受微裂缝的滑动、新微裂缝的产生、扩展及孔隙坍塌的综合影响。泥页岩单轴抗压破裂呈张性或张剪性,张性破裂易发生于刚度较高、固结程度较强的部位;而剪性破裂易发生于刚度较低、固结程度较弱的部位。S型破裂准则可以较为准确的描述泥页岩从单轴到三轴发生破裂时所对应的强度变化。从地质学角度,对影响泥页岩UCS的因素进行了归纳,分别为矿物组成、层理面角度、分选性、微组构、有机质含量及分布、孔隙度、水分、微裂缝8方面因素,详细分析了不同影响因素的影响机制。在这些影响因素中,微裂缝由于分布特征复杂,其对泥页岩单轴抗压破裂及UCS的影响机制研究尚不深入。因此建议未来应加强泥页岩微裂缝参数的定量化研究,从微观尺度研究微裂缝对泥页岩单轴抗压破裂的具体影响机制,该研究可以为页岩油气勘探、开发提供科学指导。     

压缩荷载下泥岩裂缝演化规律的CT试验研究

裂缝的演化与空间展布规律是影响泥岩盖层密闭效果的关键因素。为研究泥岩失稳破坏过程中裂纹的萌生、扩展和汇集贯通等演化规律,针对龙马溪组泥岩进行了单轴压缩下的同步CT扫描试验,通过裂纹面积的变化特征及裂纹结构的分形特性,探讨了不同加载水平下裂纹的演化规律,从细观尺度揭示了泥岩裂纹演化与宏观变形特性的关系。研究结果表明：泥岩CT图像灰度频率及裂纹面积的变化均可反映裂纹的演化特征。荷载水平（即当前荷载与峰值荷载之比）为0～20%时,裂纹面积迅速增加,裂纹开始萌生,但由于受到闭合效应的抑制,相对并不活跃;荷载水平（当前荷载与峰值荷载之比）为20%～65%时,裂纹面积变化不大,裂纹萌生效应和闭合效应同时进行,且作用大致相抵,泥岩进入稳定承压阶段;荷载水平为65%～85%时,裂纹面积陡然增加,裂纹进入扩展及汇集贯通阶段,而荷载水平为65%时的突然跳跃,表明裂纹从萌生闭合到扩展过渡具有突发性和瞬时性。随着荷载的继续增加,泥岩内部结构呈复杂化、混乱化的变化趋势,且裂纹从外向内逐渐贯通。裂纹分形维数呈现的增长―下降―再增长―再下降的波状变化规律,是裂纹萌生、闭合、扩展和归并等相互转化的结果。     

裂隙岩石单轴压缩损伤扩展细观机理CT分析初探

完成了单一裂纹的裂隙砂岩单轴压缩条件下细观损伤破坏机理CT实时试验,得到了裂纹萌生、发展、宏观裂纹形成、破坏等各阶段的CT图像、CT数和CT数方差。结果表明,与无预制裂隙的岩石试样相比,已有预制裂纹对新的裂纹的起裂位置及贯通性宏观破坏裂纹的形成具有重要影响,预制裂纹的存在导致裂隙砂岩试样的扩容量大于完整试样破坏时的扩容量。     

单轴压缩条件下含三叉裂隙类岩石试样力学特性的细观研究

三叉裂隙是自然界普遍存在的一种岩体缺陷形式,其对岩体的力学特性有重要影响。对含预制三叉裂隙的水泥砂浆试样进行室内单轴压缩试验,配合使用摄像机拍摄裂纹的起裂、扩展、贯通过程,通过数字图像技术处理获取试样的应变场云图,并结合PFC2D程序研究不同?、? 条件下试样的强度特征、裂纹模式和裂纹演化扩展规律。研究表明：三叉裂隙对试样单轴抗压强度有明显的削弱作用。当? 恒定为120°时,试样在? = 30°时达到最大抗压强度;当? 恒定为90°时,随?增大,试样抗压强度呈先减小后增大的趋势,且当? = 45°时达到最大抗压强度。试样产生的裂纹可分为3类,分别是张拉型裂纹(Ⅰ型裂纹)、剪切型裂纹(Ⅱ型裂纹)、混合型裂纹(Ⅲ型裂纹)。这3类裂纹通常从裂隙尖端开始产生,并且Ⅰ型裂纹沿加载方向扩展,通常未扩展至试样边界;Ⅱ型和Ⅲ型裂纹通常与加载方向呈一定角度扩展至试样边界。通过对裂纹的几何形态和组成宏观裂纹的微裂纹成分的分析,得知导致含三叉裂隙试样在单轴压缩条件下失效的是张拉破坏。数字图像技术得到的应变云图表明,当载荷达到一定阶段,裂隙尖端出现应力集中,微破裂开始发育并聚集成微破裂区,微破裂区扩大产生宏观裂纹。通过对主应变和剪应变云图分析,发现导致试样失效的是张拉破坏,剪应变在裂纹扩展过程中的影响较小。     

模拟岩石中裂纹扩展连接的近场动力学方法

脆性岩石材料在压应力作用下常出现两类裂纹：翼型张拉裂纹和次生剪切裂纹。近场动力学是一种新型的无网格数值计算方法。在近场动力学理论中,采用积分形式的控制方程代替微分形式的控制方程使得该数值算法在断裂问题上具有独特的优势。将Mohr-Coulomb准则和最大主应力准则引入非普通“态”基近场动力学理论中,分别用于模拟材料常见的压剪和张拉破坏。这种扩展的非普通“态”基近场动力学可以有效地模拟脆性岩石材料在多种受力状态下的裂纹起裂、扩展和连接问题。通过5个不同的数值算例说明该数值算法在处理脆性岩石材料断裂问题的有效性和准确性。首先,通过模拟含圆孔的弹性板拉伸数值试验说明该数值算法的有效性和准确性。其次,数值模拟了简单三点弯曲试验以及不使用其他外部准则条件下动荷载作用下裂纹的分叉试验,所得结果与其他试验结果或数值结果相吻合,从而验证了该理论的有效性。然后,模拟了包含斜裂纹的巴西圆盘试验,裂纹扩展路径和计算所得的断裂韧度同样吻合于试验结果。最后,模拟了单轴压缩状态下,预制裂纹试样的裂纹扩展和连接问题。将该数值算法与试验结果对比表明,所提出的数值方法可以模拟和预测岩石类材料的张拉和压剪裂纹的起裂、扩展和连接行为。     

模拟岩石压剪状态下主次裂纹萌生开裂的扩展有限元法

压剪应力状态下,岩石类材料中常见两类裂纹：翼型张拉裂纹和次生压剪裂纹。基于扩展有限元方法（XFEM）,提出了模拟压剪裂纹面作用机制的扩展有限元位移增强方案,并给出了扩展有限元法分叉裂纹处理方法,分别用最大周向拉应力准则和Mohr-Coulomb准则判断张拉裂纹和压剪裂纹的萌生和扩展。基于Matlab平台编写了数值计算程序Betaxfem 2D,通过两个算例对所提方案进行了验证,所得结果与有限元法（FEM）计算结果吻合很好。模拟了单轴压缩载荷下含预制闭合裂纹试件的裂纹分叉、扩展过程,与试验结果的对比表明,所提方案可以模拟和预测岩石类材料张拉、压剪交互分叉裂纹的萌生和扩展行为。     

基于DIC技术的3D打印节理试件破裂机制研究

为了准确表征不同角度预制节理岩石在单轴压缩下的变形破坏模式,基于3D打印技术制作了节理模型用于模拟岩体中的结构面,通过水泥砂浆的浇筑得到含不同角度预制节理的岩石试件并进行单轴压缩试验,同时采用数字图像相关技术（DIC）观测、分析试验过程中试件裂纹产生、扩展以及贯通过程。结果表明：随着预制节理从0°增加到90°,试件强度与峰值应变均呈现先降低后升高的变化趋势,0°和45°试件弹性模量相对于完整试件有所降低。基于DIC检测结果,0°、30°、45°及60°试件裂纹皆从预制节理尖端部位起裂,各角度试件的起裂应力与试件强度变化规律一致。各角度试样起裂时在剪应力控制下以剪切翼型裂纹形式起裂,0°与45°试件裂纹在扩展过程由剪切发展为张拉型裂纹,30°和60°试件以剪切裂纹形式贯穿始终,90°试件从底部起裂并最终表现为张拉破坏。研究还发现,下翼起裂角θ2和上翼起裂角θ1之间存在明显的线性正相关关系,关系式为θ2 =0.828 6θ1 +12.185,且起裂应力大小变化与峰值应力变化一致,皆随节理角度的增加先减小后增大。     

基于3D-ILC含内裂纹孔口脆性固体断裂特性试验

孔口问题为力学领域中经典问题之一,也是岩土如隧洞、巷道等工程领域重要的问题之一。随断裂力学的发展,对含裂纹孔口问题的研究也不断深入。但是,以往研究多集中在二维问题或者含表面裂纹的孔口问题,含纯内裂纹的孔口问题研究报道较少。基于3D-ILC技术（对表面无任何影响的情况下,凭空生成任意参数的深埋内裂纹）,在含有孔口的脆性材料中生成内裂纹,开展单轴压缩试验,与无裂纹完整孔口试样试验结果及已有文献进行对比,并开展理论与数值模拟研究。结果表明：（1）3D-ILC与传统方法相比,裂纹特征更为真实,为解决断裂力学中的三维内裂纹问题奠定了基础;（2）完整孔口试样裂纹形态主要有主裂纹与八字形裂纹;（3）含内裂纹试样裂纹形态以内裂纹扩展为主,主要有翼裂纹、次生裂纹、反翼裂纹、反向次生裂纹、竖向扭曲裂纹与主裂纹6种;（4）含裂纹孔口试样最终的破坏荷载比无裂纹孔口试样平均低76.49%,起裂应力较无裂纹孔口试样平均低96.72%;（5）通过数值模拟对完整孔口试样、含主裂纹孔口试样、含内裂纹孔口试样的裂纹扩展进行定性分析,与试验结论一致。该研究结果为含三维内裂纹的孔口脆性材料的断裂理论研究提供了物理试验基础。     

冻结红砂岩单轴损伤破坏CT实时试验研究

为探究冻结岩石的宏观力学特性及损伤演化机理,对20、?5、?10 ℃红砂岩进行单轴加载CT实时扫描,获得各扫描层的CT扫描图像。利用Matlab自编程序生成灰度直方图和二值图像,基于CT数H值正比于密度的关系定义岩样扫描层的安全区、损伤区、破坏区,结合温度效应、水的软化作用及冰的冻胀力对岩样的影响,定量地研究冻结岩石的损伤破坏演化规律。试验研究表明,(1) 温度由20 ℃降至?5、?10 ℃时未冻水含量减少而冻结冰含量增加,岩样强度增大、抗变形能力提高、整体稳定性提高,CT图像呈现出岩样裂纹尺寸发展减慢、损坏程度减弱的规律;(2) 不同温度下岩石单轴加载的损伤演化经历了裂隙萌生、闭合、延伸、汇集及形成宏观主裂纹的阶段,岩样变形增大发生破坏;(3) 由于端部效应,中间较两端扫描层的损伤程度高,外侧较内侧扫描层先发生损伤,损伤边缘化并向内部扩展。     

含折线型裂隙砂岩试件翼型裂纹起裂与扩展机制研究

岩体内部赋存的裂隙很多表现为折线型,为探究这类岩体的断裂机制,制备含折线型裂隙砂岩试件并对其进行单轴压缩试验。采用数字图像相关(DIC)方法计算加载过程中的变形场演化,根据新生裂纹两侧的位移差异识别裂纹类型;运用扩展有限元法(XFEM)模拟断裂过程,根据应力分布特征解释翼型裂纹起裂与扩展机制。DIC计算结果表明,新生裂纹处出现应变局部化带,裂纹两侧发生相对分离;含直线型和折线型裂隙砂岩试件的翼型裂纹分别萌生于预制裂隙端部以及折角处,这是因为裂隙几何形态会改变拉应力集中位置;含折线型裂隙砂岩试件的起裂应力小于含直线型裂隙砂岩试件,这是因为相同加载条件下前者的最大拉应力值更大;这2类试件的裂纹扩展均是由于裂纹尖端集中的拉应力引起的,裂纹依然呈张开状态;裂隙几何形态未改变试件的最终破坏模式,均表现为对角剪切破坏。     

页岩水力压裂过程的态型近场动力学模拟研究

水力压裂技术广泛使用于页岩气开采工程中。为了分析压裂过程中多裂缝扩展形成复杂裂缝网的机制,尝试将态型近场动力学理论引入页岩水平井水力压裂过程的力学建模与数值仿真,在物质点间相互作用力模型中加入等效水压力项以实现在新生裂缝面上跟踪施加水压力,建立了水力压裂过程的近场动力学分析模型。通过模拟页岩储层的水力压裂过程,可得到复杂的裂缝扩展路径、裂缝网络的形成过程以及裂缝扩展受射孔间距及页岩天然裂缝和层理的影响。研究结果表明:射孔间距过小会造成起裂干扰,使中心射孔的裂缝扩展受到抑制;在压裂压力一定的情况下适当增大射孔间距,可以显著增强页岩压裂形成裂缝网的能力;压裂过程中水平层理面可能张开形成水平裂缝,且天然裂缝会诱导形成更复杂的垂直裂缝。模型和方法可为页岩水力压裂过程和机制研究及工程实践提供参考。     

Influence of inclination angles and confining pressures on mechanical behavior of rock materials containing a preexisting crack

To deeply understand the cracking mechanical behavior of brittle rock materials, numerical simulations of a rock specimen containing a single preexisting crack were carried out by the expanded distinct element method (EDEM). Based on the analysis of crack tips and a comparison between stress- and strain-based methods, the strain strength criterion was adopted in the numerical models to simulate the crack initiation and propagation processes under uniaxial and biaxial compression. The simulation results indicated that the crack inclination angle and confining pressure had a great influence on the tensile and shear properties, peak strength, and failure behaviors, which also showed a good agreement with the experimental results. If the specimen was under uniaxial compression, it was found that the initiation stress and peak strength first decreased and then increased with an increasing inclination angle α. Regardless of the size of α, tensile cracks initiated prior to shear cracks. If α was small (such as α ≤ 30°), the tensile cracks dominated the specimen failure, the wing cracks propagated towards the direction of uniaxial compression, and the propagation of shear cracks was inhibited by the high concentration of tensile stress. In contrast, if α was large (such as α ≥ 45°), mixed cracks dominated the specimen failure, and the external loading favored the further propagation of shear cracks. Analyzing the numerical results of the specimen with a 45° inclination angle under biaxial compression, it was revealed that lateral confinement had a significant influence on the initiation sequence and the mechanical properties of new cracks.     

含裂隙岩石的受压破坏机理研究

含裂隙结构面岩体在加载过程中的裂纹扩张和强度对研究岩体的变形破坏机理具有重要意义。用砂浆裂隙试件模拟含裂隙岩石进行单轴压缩实验,获得了3种倾角(45、60、75)和3种裂隙长度(45mm、60mm、75mm)的9种组合工况的裂隙扩展角度和初裂强度,并分析了9种工况下的受压破坏机理。实验结果表明:当裂隙长度相同时,初裂强度随倾角的增加而增加,且倾角由60增加到75,初裂强度增加得更快;当裂隙倾角一定时,初裂强度随裂隙长度的增加而降低。应用最大周向正应力理论分析了含裂隙试件的受压破坏机理,获得了裂隙扩展角理论表达式;通过比较可知:裂隙扩展角的实测值和理论值基本吻合。     

基于3D-ILC球体45º三维双内裂纹复合断裂研究

断裂力学是各领域基础科学,材料内裂纹相互作用是断裂力学的重要研究领域,但目前球体内裂纹相互作用研究成果较少。基于三维激光疲劳内裂纹（3D-ILC）技术,在对球体试样表面无任何损伤的情况下,制作三维平行纯内裂纹,开展45o倾角平行双内裂纹单轴压缩试验,对双内裂纹的裂纹扩展过程、应力双折射规律、断口特征、破坏形态、相互作用等多方面开展研究,进行含双内裂纹I-II-III型圆球断裂数值模拟,分析KⅠ、KⅡ、KⅢ分布规律,与试验相符。结果表明：（1）球体双内裂纹在单轴压缩下之间发生屏蔽作用,主裂纹面穿过两预制内裂纹;（2）翼型裂纹光滑区呈现I-II型裂纹断口特征,翼型裂纹侧面撕裂区呈现“矛状”III型裂纹特征;（3）基于M积分计算的KI、KII、KIII分析与基于断裂特征的I、II、III型裂纹类型分析一致。3D-ILC技术可用于球体内裂纹相互作用断裂试验研究,球体内裂纹试验与理论分析为脆性材料内裂纹扩展及相互作用研究提供试验与理论参考。     

Modeling of Crack Initiation, Propagation and Coalescence in Uniaxial Compression

Summary ?Cracks that initiate from pre-existing discontinuities can link with other cracks or with other discontinuities and produce failure in a rock mass. The Displacement Discontinuity Method (DDM), FROCK, is used in this investigation to model experimental observations on pre-cracked specimens of gypsum. In these experiments two fractures, which were either both open or closed, were placed through the thickness of the specimens, and detailed observations of the cracking process were performed as the specimens were loaded in uniaxial compression. The following aspects are studied for both open and closed fractures: 1) crack initiation stress; 2) direction and propagation of the new cracks; 3) type of coalescence and stress at which it occurs. Modeling is done considering the actual size of the specimens. Relations between the direction of initiation for each type of crack, the orientation of the initial fractures, and the type and coalescence are established. In addition, comparisons between results from experiments and predictions from the model are presented. The numerical results are in agreement with the experiments.     

Digital spatial cracking behaviors of fine-grained sandstone with precracks under uniaxial compression

X-ray computed tomography (CT) imaging and digital image correlation techniques are applied to study spatial cracking behaviors of sandstone under uniaxial compression, in which the angle between precracks is 45°, 90°, and 135° and the crack depth is 7.5 mm and 10 mm, respectively. Layered anisotropy damages and spatial cracking evolution are quantitatively analyzed by the defined digital layered anisotropy index and digital damage ratio, respectively. Three cases with different array of precracks evidence the depth effects of precracks on spatial crack propagation. Results show that the failure process of samples is first controlled by the coalescence of surface cracks in 2D space and then the samples are failed by the propagation of coalesced cracks (shear cracks with different shapes). The crack types for samples with precrack depth of 7.5 mm are all shear cracks for Cases 1‑3. Nevertheless, the crack types for samples with precrack depth of 10 mm are, respectively, the half X-shape crack for Case 1, X-shape crack for Case 2, and double shell crack for Case 3. The precrack has a significant promotion effect on the failure process when the angle between the two precracks is β = 90°, and the precrack has little to no effect on the failure process when the angle between the two precracks is β = 135°. As the depth of precrack increases to 10 mm, the crack types are changed in this study. The peak strength of sample subjected to uniaxial compression decreases with increasing depth of precracks, implying the decrease of the rock strength by the discontinuity.