Classification studies of lead–zinc ore fines using water-injection cyclone

Classification studies to recover liberated particles of lead and zinc minerals from a ground lead–zinc ore were carried out using a 100-mm water-injection cyclone. The effects of variables on the performance of water-injection cyclone are discussed. The results indicated that the injection water rate has a complex interaction with the other variables like spigot opening, feed inlet pressure, and vortex finder opening. A set of empirical equations for slurry throughput, corrected cyclone cut size, minimum distribution point, and reduced efficiency numbers was developed for predicting the performance of water-injection cyclone. Finally, the results obtained in water-injection cyclone are compared with the data obtained on a similar diameter (100 mm) hydrocyclone.     

Application of central composite rotatable design to modelling the effect of some operating variables on the performance of the three-product cyclone

The central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to design an experimental program to model the effects of inlet pressure, feed density, and length and diameter of the inner vortex finder on the operational performance of a 150-mm three-product cyclone. The ranges of values of the variables used in the design were: inlet pressure: 80–130 kPa, feed density: 30–60%; length of IVF below the OVF: 50–585 mm; diameter of IVF: 35–50 mm. A total of 30 tests were conducted, which is 51 less than that required for a three-level full factorial design.Because the model allows confident performance prediction by interpolation over the range of data in the database, it was used to construct response surface graphs to describe the effects of the variables on the performance of the three-product cyclone. To obtain a simple and yet a realistic model, it was refitted using only the variable terms that are significant at greater than or equal to 90% confidence level. Considering the selected operating variables, the resultant model is significant and predicts the experimental data well.     

Influence of feed inlet diameter on the hydrocyclone behaviour

From earlier work on 10.2-, 15.2-, 25.4-, and 38.1-cm hydrocyclones, it was concluded that the design variables which affect the hydrocyclone performance are the inlet and outlet dimensions and that the hydrocyclone body is merely a housing required to carry these parts. A single inlet only was used with each cyclone for that study. In the present investigation the effect of feed inlet diameter on the hydrocyclone behaviour was studied by changing inlets on the previously studied cyclones. The results confirm the above conclusions.     

The influence of design and operating variables on the capacities of hydrocyclone classifiers

An extensive test programme has been conducted on 10.2-, 25.4- and 38.1-cm “Krebs” hydrocyclones in order to study the effects of some design and operating variables on their volume capacities.For a given pressure the capacity of a cyclone was found to rise sharply with the addition of solid particles to water until the solids content was about 15% by weight. Further increase in solids caused a decrease in throughput. The effect of vortex finder diameter on the throughput was found to be non-linear. A general equation which relates inlet and outlet diameters, operating pressure and feed solids content to the volume capacity is presented. This equation is independent of hydrocyclone diameter.     

Particle size distribution and dissolution properties of metals in cyclone fly ash

The particles in the examined cyclone fly ash were all smaller than 0.25 mm. in diameter, and particles smaller than 0.075 mm. in diameter accounted for 88.4 % of the ash weight. This result indicates that cyclone fly ash consists of particles with a small diameter. The metals in the cyclone fly ash were enriched in small particles. The highest concentrations for zinc, copper, lead, cadmium and molybdenum in the cyclone fly ash were found in the smallest particle size fraction (< 0.075 mm.) and for Barium, chromium, nickel, Vanadium and Cobalt in the second to smallest particle size fraction (0.075-0.125 mm.). From an environmental and toxicological standpoint, the smallest particles are of the greatest concern when ash is handed at landfill disposal sites (transport and disposal especially in stormy weather conditions), and some studies have reported risks to workers from prolonged exposure to ash. The results of the comparison of various dissolution methods for metals showed that the digestion procedures with nitric acid alone (USEPA 3051) or with a mixture of nitric acid + hydrogen peroxide (USEPA 3050B) slightly underestimated the metal concentrations in the cyclone fly ash. Although the use of hydrofluoric acid is often necessary for the determination of a number of elements associated with siliceous minerals, its use can result in loss of trace elements during dissolution.     

Modelling mineral size reduction in the closed-circuit ball mill at the Pine Point Mines concentrator

Using plug flow material transport and a cumulative-basis rate-of-breakage parameter, overall size reduction through the closed-circuit ball mills at the Pine Point and Gibraltar concentrators was simulated over a wide range of operating conditions. The rate-of-brakage parameter was related to particle size by a power law, the exponent (n) being: Pine Point, n = 1.043 ± 0.026, and Gibraltar, n = 0.747 ± 0.020. The success of this approach probably stems from the high (> 1.5) circulating load ratios encountered.By analogy individual mineral size reduction at Pine Point was examined. A similar rate-of-breakage parameter versus size relationship was found. Pyrite was the hardest mineral, but fine galena was equally resistant. However, the approximation that mineral and overall rates of breakage were the same gave an adequate fit to the mineral size reduction. This was emphasized by combining with a cyclone model to simulate cyclone overflow mineral size distribution. A more accurate cyclone model is shown to be more important in simulating mineral deportment at Pine Point.Complementary laboratory batch grinding tests were conducted on rod mill discharge and ball mill feed samples. Sufficient agreement with the first-order hypothesis was observed to analyse the rate-of-breakage parameter. The kinetics was similar for both samples and in turn similar to the plant-derived kinetics in terms of relative mineral rates-of-breakage and the relationship of the rate-of-breakage parameter with particle size.     

An analysis of medium losses in coal washing plants

A major operating cost in dense-medium separation is in replacement of lost medium solids. The loss of medium solids, being costly, plays a crucial role in determining the economics of any preparation operation. Coal washeries that employ dense-medium cyclones often attempt optimization of the processes by varying the vortex or the spigot diameter and the feed relative density. While these changes help in closer control of the separation process, they also result in medium losses due to changes in the medium split ratio (ratio of the medium flow rate in overflow to underflow). Since medium solids are lost by adhesion to products and as magnetic separator effluent, the effect of the change in medium split ratio on the drain-and-rinse screens and, hence, the magnetic separator circuit needs to be studied. In Tata Steel's coal washeries, at Jharkhand India, which employs primary and secondary dense-medium cyclones in series to produce clean coal, middlings and rejects, reducing the relative density of feed medium, had an insignificant effect on the medium split ratio. On the other hand, changing the cone ratio (ratio of the overflow diameter to the underflow diameter) changed the relative density and the flow rates through the cyclone outlets, thus affecting the performance of the magnetite recovery circuit.A systematic study through laboratory tests and a detailed plant sampling campaign helped in identifying the causes of magnetite loss. Upon implementation of the recommendations, the magnetite losses decreased, resulting in a saving of approximately US$27,500 per annum. The study also helped in evolving some checkpoints for plant operators for identifying magnetite losses.     

Prediction of magnetite segregation in dense medium cyclone using computational fluid dynamics technique

Multi-phase simulations of turbulent driven flow in a dense medium cyclone with magnetite medium have been conducted in Fluent, using the Algebraic Slip Mixture model to model the dispersed phases and the air-core, and both the Large Eddy Simulation turbulence model (LES) and Reynolds Stress Models (RSM) for turbulence closure. The predicted air-core shape and diameter were found to be close to the experimental results measured by gamma ray tomography. It is possible to use the LES turbulence model with ASM multi-phase model to predict the air/slurry interface accurately. Multi-phase simulations (air/water/medium) show appropriate medium segregation effects but over-predict the level of segregation compared to that measured by gamma ray tomography near the wall. This is believed to be because of unaccounted back-mixing of the dispersed phase due to turbulence in the basic Algebraic Slip Mixture model. The predictions of accurate axial segregation of magnetite medium are investigated using the LES turbulence model in conjunction with the multi-phase mixture model and viscosity corrections according to the feed particle loading factor. At higher feed densities the agreement between the Dunglison [Dunglison, M.E., 1999, A general model of the dense medium cylone, PhD thesis, JKMRC, University of Queensland] correlations and experimental measurements and the CFD is reasonably good, but the overflow density is lower than the model predictions. It is believed that the excessive underflow volumetric flow rates are responsible for under prediction of the overflow density. The effect of size distribution of the magnetite has been fully studied. As expected, the ultra-fine magnetite sizes (i.e. 2 and 7 microns) are distributed uniformly throughout the cyclone. As the size of magnetite increases, more segregation of magnetite occurs close to the wall.     

基于孔径分布的全风化泥岩持水曲线推算

采用压力板法、滤纸法和饱和盐溶液蒸气平衡法,分别对取自广西岑溪滑坡现场的全风化泥岩原状样进行了持水特性试验,得到全吸力范围内的持水曲线;用压汞试验测试经受不同吸力原状样的孔径分布,并用此分布曲线推算持水曲线。试验结果表明：全风化泥岩原状样的进气值为110 kPa,用3种方法可测得全风化泥岩的全吸力范围内的持水曲线。全风化泥岩原状样的孔隙大小分布可认为单峰结构,其孔隙的孔径主要分布在10～1 000 nm,但也有孔径在50～300 ?m范围内的小部分孔隙存在,主要因为原状样中存在少量的原生裂隙。利用3个经受过不同吸力土样的孔径分布分别推算其持水曲线,3条曲线组合与实测值比较表明,用一次压汞试验结果（孔径大小分布曲线）预测全吸力范围内的持水曲线精度较低,而选取各自吸力范围段的预测曲线组合而成全吸力范围持水曲线,与试验数据更为接近。     

旋流除砂器的改进及其试验效果

通用旋流除砂器中心部位出现的涡旋气柱会对泥浆净化效果产生不良影响。据此,在通用旋流除砂器中心安装一直径近似于气柱直径的圆杆,旨在增强内旋流的除砂能力,减小内旋流体和气柱的横向摆动幅度,从而提高除砂效果。试验证明,改进后的旋流除砂器的总除砂效率达到91%。     

Characteristic curve for the coal-oil agglomeration process

Experiments were carried out on coal fines of two different washeries, at different periods of agglomeration, to determine the size distribution of agglomerates with changes in feed size, pulp density and furnace oil dosage. It is found that the size distribution of the agglomerates follows a self-preserving growth. This behaviour has been generalised using a reduced dimensionless size axis to obtain a characteristic curve. It is shown that this curve is affected only by the nature of the feed and not by the process variables. An equation has been suggested to quantify this characteristic curve of the oil agglomeration process.     

Effects of particle size on crushing and deformation behaviors of rockfill materials

Strength and deformation behaviors of rockfill materials,key factors for determining the stability of dams,pertain strongly to the grain crushing characteristics.In this study,single-particle crushing tests were carried out on rockfill materials with nominal particle diameters of 2.5 mm,5 mm and 10 mm to investigate the particle size effect on the single-particle strength and the relationship between the characteristic stress and probability of non-failure.Test data were found to be described by the Weibull distribution with the Weibull modulus of 3.24.Assemblies with uniform nominal grains were then subjected to one-dimensional compression tests at eight levels of vertical stress with a maximum of 100 MPa.The yield stress in one-dimensional compression tests increased with decreasing the particle size,which could be estimated from the single-particle crushing tests.The void ratio-vertical stress curve could be predicted by an exponential function.The particle size distribution curve increased obviously with applied stresses less than 16 MPa and gradually reached the ultimate fractal grading.The relative breakage index became constant with stress up to 64 MPa and was obtained from the ultimate grading at the fractal dimension(a?2:7).A hyperbolical function was also found useful for describing the relationship between the relative breakage index and input work during one-dimensional compression tests.     

A generalization of distribution data for characterizing the performance of float-sink coal cleaning devices

The performance of float-sink coal cleaning devices customarily is characterized by a distribution curve, in which the percent of feed reporting to clean coal is plotted against specific gravity. For a given vessel and a given feed a family of distribution curves can be obtained, each having its own specific gravity of separation.This paper presents a method for combining these distribution curves at different specific gravities of separation, for a given coal cleaning vessel and a given feed, into a single, generalized distribution curve which is independent of the specific gravity of separation. This curve can be expressed in tabular form or it can be represented mathematically by an exponential type equation, known as a Weibull function.A different generalized distribution curve will be obtained for each of several different size fractions. A method is presented for utilizing these curves with feeds which encompass a broad spectrum of sizes.The well-known concepts of error area and probable error are extended to the generalized distribution curve. It is shown that the conventional probable error, and — under certain conditions — the conventional error area, are directly proportional to the specific gravity of separation for a given vessel and a given feed size.     

Parameter estimation and simulation of dependence of constant pressure batch dewatering on initial solids concentration

The problem of predicting dependence of constant pressure batch dewatering of particulate suspensions on feed solids concentration is considered. Scaling transformations which demonstrate that evolution in the cake consolidation stage of dewatering is governed by an underlying self-similar behavior are proposed. The self-similar master curve, which can be obtained using only one set of experimental dewatering data obtained with a feed suspension having solids concentration above the gel point, is employed for estimating dependence of key dewatering process parameters on feed solids concentration. Using the parameter estimates in a Darcy's law based dewatering model, it is shown that the complete evolution of dewatering for a desired feed solids concentration can be predicted with reasonable accuracy. The approach is simpler to implement in comparison to available pressure filtration models, which require several suspension characterization experiments.     

基于梯度塑性本构理论的岩样侧向变形分析(II): 尺寸效应及弹性回跳

提出了利用不同尺寸试件的轴向应力-应变曲线得到轴向应力-侧向应变曲线的一种方法，并研究了结构尺寸对轴向应力-侧向应变曲线的影响。根据尺寸不同试件的轴向应力-轴向应变曲线的实验结果，并基于梯度塑性理论的解析解，在应变软化阶段，确定出了各种试件的剪切带条数。由此求出了不同宽度试样的轴向应力-侧向应变曲线。剪切带条数与试件宽度之比是决定轴向应力-侧向应变曲线特征的关键指标。若该比率为常量，则上述曲线不具有尺寸效应。当宽试件及窄试件在局部化启动后，在试件内部都出现一条剪切带时，随着试件宽度的增加，该曲线越陡，甚至出现回跳。上述方法也可用于分析轴向应力-环向应变曲线的尺寸效应问题。尺寸效应的原因是局部化，但局部化并非总引起尺寸效应。     

围压路径对冻结粉质砂土变形行为及强度的影响研究

目前关于冻土的室内三轴压缩试验研究多采用恒围压下的轴向加载方法,而实际工程中的受压土体基本处于围压、轴压同时发生变化的情况。以冻结粉质砂土为研究对象,进行了变围压和恒围压下的三轴剪切测试。根据试后试样变形情况,给出了试样面积的统一修正公式,研究结果表明：当含水量较小时,围压路径对应力-应变曲线的初始段和最终段没有显见影响,但在应力-应变曲线中间段,变围压下的应力-应变曲线明显在相应的恒围压曲线之下,且初始围压越小,曲线位置越低。当含水量不低于饱和值时,围压路径和含冰量共同影响着应力-应变曲线的发展趋势,且变围压曲线的最终段基本都在相应的恒围压曲线之上,中间段变化特点与含冰量和初始围压有关。围压路径对强度随围压变化趋势的影响跟含水量大小有关。当含水量较小时,两种围压路径下的强度值比较接近;当含水量不低于饱和值时,恒围压下的强度值低于相应变围压下的强度值。     

残积土特殊应力路径的三轴试验研究

利用先进的GDS应力路径三轴仪,探讨了花岗岩残积土在特殊应力路径下的三轴试验特性。做了2种应力路径下的三轴排水剪切试验：平均应力等于常数、偏应力变化的剪切试验以及偏应力等于常数、平均应力变化的剪切试验。试验结果表明：平均应力等于常数的试验其偏应力-轴应变曲线为双曲线型,偏应力等于常数的试验其平均应力-轴应变曲线为幂函数型;发现花岗岩残积土具有剪缩特性,回弹体积模量随偏应力增大而显著提高。     

CFD simulation and experimental analysis of flow dynamics and grinding performance of opposed fluidized bed air jet mill

This paper presents a three dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model to investigate the flow dynamics of solid–gas phases during fine grinding in an air jet mill. Alpine 100AFG fluidized bed air jet mill is considered for the study and the jet milling model is simulated using FLUENT 6.3.2 using a standard k-ε model. The model is developed in GAMBIT 2.3.16 and meshed by tet/hybrid (T-Grid) and Triangular (Pave) meshes. The effects of operating parameters such as solid feed rate, grinding air pressure and internal classifier speed on the performance of the jet mill are analyzed. The CFD simulation results are presented in the forms of dual phase vector plot, volume fraction of phases and particle trajectories during fine grinding process. The mass of ground feed entering and leaving the cyclone (underflow) is also computed by simulation. The proposed model gives realistic predictions of the flow dynamics within the jet mill. Experiments are conducted on the Alpine 100AFG jet mill to study the particle size, morphology and mass of the ground product. The numerical results are found in good agreement with the experimental results.     

Rapid estimation of corrected cut point in hydrocyclone classification units

In dressing plants, the rapid determination of the corrected cut point in hydrocyclone classification is desirable, useful, and important. In this work, classification tests have been carried out on white sand using a 10-cm diameter hydrocyclone to examine closely the relation between the recovery to underflow and the corrected separation size, $\text{d}{}_{50}$. The study was carried out at wide ranges of: apex diameter, vortex-finder diameter, solid content of feed, and length of vortex finder.A simple, yet reliable, equation relating the solid recovery of underflow to $\text{d}{}_{50}$, is developed using all the obtained results. The predicted data show good agreement with the experimental.     

Estimation of maximum seasonal tropical cyclone damage in the Atlantic using climate models

Natural Hazards - There are several different estimates of the observed cyclone damage potential of tropical cyclones based on observations of size, intensity and track. For the analysis of climate...