LANDSLIDE‐GLACIER INTERACTION IN A NEOPARAGLACIAL SETTING AT TVERRBYTNEDE,JOTUNHEIMEN, SOUTHERN NORWAY

A tongue‐like, boulder‐dominated deposit in Tverrbytnede, upper Visdalen, Jotunheimen, southern Norway, is interpreted as the product of a rock avalanche (landslide) due to its angular to subangular boulders, surface morphology with longitudinal ridges, down‐feature coarsening, and cross‐cutting relationship to ‘Little Ice Age’ moraines. The rock avalanche fell onto glacier ice, probably channelled along a furrow between two glaciers, and stopped on the glacier foreland, resulting in its elongated shape and long runout distance. Its distal margin may have become remobilized as a rock glacier, but a rock glacier origin for the entire landform is discounted due to lack of source debris, presence of matrix, lack of transverse ridges, and sparcity of melt‐out collapse pits. Lichenometric dating of the deposit indicates an approximate emplacement age of ad 1900. Analysis highlights the interaction of rock‐slope failures and glaciers during deglacierization in a neoparaglacial setting, with reduced slope stability due to debuttressing and permafrost degradation, and enhanced landslide mobility due to flow over a glacier and topographic channelling. Implications for the differentiation of relict landslides, moraines and rock glaciers are discussed and interrelationships between these landforms are considered in terms of an ice‐debris process continuum.     

The Impact Of Extreme Summer Melt on Net Accumulation of an Avalanche Fed Glacier,as Determined by Ground‐Penetrating Radar

Glacier mass balance is more sensitive to warming than cooling, but feedbacks related to the exposure of previously buried firn and ice in very warm years is not generally considered in sensitivity studies. A ground‐penetrating radar survey in the accumulation area of Rolleston Glacier, New Zealand shows that five years of previous net accumulation was removed by melt from parts of the glacier above the long‐term equilibrium line altitude during a single negative mass balance year. Rolleston Glacier receives a large amount of accumulation from snow avalanches, which may temporarily buffer it from climate warming by providing additional mass that has accumulated at higher elevations, effectively increasing the elevation range of the glacier. However, glaciers reliant on avalanche input may have high sensitivity to climatic variations because the extra mass is concentrated on a small part of the glacier, and small variations in avalanche input could have a large impact on overall glacier accumulation. Further research is needed to better estimate the amount and spatial distribution of accumulation by avalanche in order to quantify the climate sensitivity of small avalanche‐fed glaciers.     

Instability of a High Alpine Rock Ridge: the Lower Arête Des Cosmiques,Mont Blanc Massif,France

Rockfalls are dominant in the rock slopes and rock ridge morphodynamics in high mountain areas and endanger people who pass along or stay there, as well as infrastructure that host them (cable cars, refuges). Risks are probably greater now because of fast permafrost degradation and regression of surface ice, two consequences of the atmospheric warming of the last decades. These two commonly associated factors are involved in the instability of rock slopes by modifying the mechanical behaviour of often ice‐filled rock fractures and the mechanical constraints in the rock masses. This paper examines over 15 years the instability of the lower Arête des Cosmiques on the French side of the Mont Blanc massif. Its vulnerability is due to the presence of a high‐capacity refuge on its top (3613 m a.s.l.). In 1998, a part of the refuge was left without support when a collapse of 600 m³ occurred immediately below it. Since this date, reinforcement work has been carried out in this area, but the whole ridge has been affected by around 15 relatively shallow rockfalls. Through a multidisciplinary approach, this article assesses the role of the cryospheric factors in the triggering of these rockfalls.     

HOLOCENE ROCKWALL RETREAT AND THE ESTIMATION OF ROCK GLACIER AGE, PRINS KARLS FORLAND, SVALBARD

This paper presents a simple analytical model for estimating rock glacier age by coupling the ratio of frontal advance to total rock glacier length and the ratio of debris volume in the rock glacier to present debris flux in the talus cone–rock glacier transition zone. The model was applied to two rock glaciers at Prins Karls Forland, Svalbard. By assuming volumetric debris contents in the deforming layer of the rock glacier of between 0.3 and 0.4, we obtained age estimates for the rock glaciers of between 12 ka and 24 ka. The corresponding average rockwall retreat rates are between 0.30 and 0.62 mm a^‐1. Considering the limitations of the model, we suggest a minimum age of 13 ka for the initiation of rock glacier development. Using this age, rockwall retreat rates for the seven rock glaciers investigated at Prins Karls Forland are between 0.13 and 0.64 m ka^‐1 (assuming the volumetric debris content for the whole rock glacier/talus cone is 0.35). The model requires further testing on other datasets, better field estimates of the debris content and depth of the deforming layer, and could also benefit from the inclusion of an unsteady debris supply function in order to refine age estimates.     

Current Behaviour and Dynamics of the Lowermost Italian Glacier (Montasio Occidentale,Julian Alps)

Smaller glaciers (<0.5 km²) react quickly to environmental changes and typically show a large scatter in their individual response. Accounting for these ice bodies is essential for assessing regional glacier change, given their high number and contribution to the total loss of glacier area in mountain regions. However, studying small glaciers using traditional techniques may be difficult or not feasible, and assessing their current activity and dynamics may be problematic. In this paper, we present an integrated approach for characterizing the current behaviour of a small, avalanche‐fed glacier at low altitude in the Italian Alps, combining geomorphological, geophysical and high‐resolution geodetic surveying with a terrestrial laser scanner. The glacier is still active and shows a detectable mass transfer from the accumulation area to the lower ablation area, which is covered by a thick debris mantle. The glacier owes its existence to the local topo‐climatic conditions, ensured by high rock walls which enhance accumulation by delivering avalanche snow and reduce ablation by providing topographic shading and regulating the debris budget of the glacier catchment. In the last several years the glacier has displayed peculiar behaviour compared with most glaciers of the European Alps, being close to equilibrium conditions in spite of warm ablation seasons. Proportionally small relative changes have also occurred since the Little Ice Age maximum. Compared with the majority of other Alpine glaciers, we infer for this glacier a lower sensitivity to air temperature and a higher sensitivity to precipitation, associated with important feedback from increasing debris cover during unfavourable periods.     

中天山石冰川特征研究

中天山研究区内石冰川有数百条之多,在86°E以西地区以阿尔卑斯型为主,东部则以科罗拉多型为主。前者具有规模大、活动性强的特点,后者正相反。东部叶状石冰川在结构上分为三层,具有“一冻到底”的特点。作者认为本区石冰川东西间分布差异主要是因西部更冷湿所致,地形、岩性、冰川和灾害地貌过程等因素促进了这种差异的形成。     

Surface hydrological processes of rock glaciated basins in the San Juan Mountains,Colorado

Glaciers in the western USA contribute summer meltwater to regional hydrological systems. In the San Juan Mountains of Colorado, where glaciers do not exist, rock glaciers serve that function during the summer runoff period. Most rock glaciers in Colorado are located on northern slopes in mountainous areas; however, some rock glaciers in southwest Colorado have different aspects. In this study, we asked how slope aspect and rising air temperatures influence the hydrological processes of streams sourced from rock glaciers in the San Juan Mountains. We focused on three adjacent basins, Yankee Boy basin, Blue Lakes basin, and Mill Creek basin, which share a common peak, Gilpin Peak. Using HOBO® U20-001–04 water-level loggers, streamflow data were collected in each of these basins, below each rock glacier. Air temperature significantly influenced stream discharge below the rock glacier. Discharge and air temperature patterns indicate a possible air temperature threshold during late summer when rock glacier melt increases at a greater rate. The results also suggest that the aspect of rock glacier basins influences stream discharge, but that temperature and precipitation are likely larger components of melt regimes.     

Glacier changes in the Qilian Mountains in the past half-century: Based on the revised First and Second Chinese Glacier Inventory

Glaciers are the most important fresh-water resources in arid and semi-arid regions of western China. According to the Second Chinese Glacier Inventory (SCGI), primarily compiled from Landsat TM/ETM+ images, the Qilian Mountains had 2684 glaciers covering an area of 1597.81±70.30 km2 and an ice volume of ~84.48 km³ from 2005 to 2010. While most glaciers are small (85.66% are <1.0 km²), some larger ones (12.74% in the range 1.0–5.0 km²) cover 42.44% of the total glacier area. The Laohugou Glacier No.12 (20.42 km²) located on the north slope of the Daxue Range is the only glacier >20 km² in the Qilian Mountains. Median glacier elevation was 4972.7 m and gradually increased from east to west. Glaciers in the Qilian Mountains are distributed in Gansu and Qinghai provinces, which have 1492 glaciers (760.96 km²) and 1192 glaciers (836.85 km²), respectively. The Shule River basin contains the most glaciers in both area and volume. However, the Heihe River, the second largest inland river in China, has the minimum average glacier area. A comparison of glaciers from the SCGI and revised glacier inventory based on topographic maps and aerial photos taken from 1956 to 1983 indicate that all glaciers have receded, which is consistent with other mountain and plateau areas in western China. In the past half-century, the area and volume of glaciers decreased by 420.81 km² (–20.88%) and 21.63 km³ (–20.26%), respectively. Glaciers with areas <1.0 km² decreased the most in number and area recession. Due to glacier shrinkage, glaciers below 4000 m completely disappeared. Glacier changes in the Qilian Mountains presented a clear longitudinal zonality, i.e., the glaciers rapidly shrank in the east but slowly in the central-west. The primary cause of glacier recession was warming temperatures, which was slightly mitigated with increased precipitation.     

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE LAKE SHEWA LANDSLIDE DAM,BADAKHSHAN, AFGHANISTAN,USING REMOTE SENSING DATA

Lake Shewa in northeastern Badakhshan, Afghanistan, was dammed sometime in antiquity when a large rock avalanche (sturzstrom) from the fault‐shattered and strongly weathered Archean gneisses of the Zirnokh peaks to the north moved into the Arakht River valley. This rock avalanche dammed up the river and its tributaries to a dam thickness of c. 400 m, producing a 12‐km‐long lake that is as much as 270 m deep, leaving c. 80 m of freeboard to the top of the dam. At least four separate instances of slope failure have been mapped at the site of the landslide dam, as well as a rock glacier, using remotely sensed data, historical maps, and Google Earth?. Spring seepage through the dam face has caused several recent subsidiary debris slides, which if continued at a large enough scale for long enough, or with additional seismicity from the active strike‐slip faults that cross beneath the landslide dam, could threaten its integrity. Otherwise the clean water that emerges from the dam face could be the source of an unvarying mini‐hydroelectric power source, in addition to the agricultural irrigation that it provides at the present time.     

近期哈尔里克山脉冰川变化遥感监测

哈尔里克山脉冰川的快速退缩已经影响到吐鲁番坎儿井的水量,先前关于该区冰川研究不够细致,且最新资料报道较为短缺。以哈尔里克山脉冰川为研究对象,基于Landsat TM/ETM+和OLI影像（1992、2002、2010、2016年）,通过比值阈值法、目视解译结合GIS技术,提取了该地区四期冰川边界,同时对研究区周边气温、降水以及日照时数进行线性趋势分析,研究其与冰川的响应关系。结果表明：（1）1992-2016年,哈尔里克山脉冰川总体呈现出持续退缩趋势,面积退缩了13.18%,年均退缩率为0.56%,近年来退缩速率有所减缓。（2）近似估算的冰储量在过去25 a间减少了18.33%,冰川物质亏损将对该区短缺的水资源提供了危险的信号。（3）冰川退缩率与冰川规模呈指数函数变化趋势;低海拔区冰川存在明显的末端升高趋势;N和NW向的冰川占明显优势,但N向退缩率最慢。（4）分形理论分析表明该地区冰川未来退缩将趋于一种稳定状态。该区气温和日照时数的显著上升导致其冰川退缩,同时冰川规模、海拔和坡向分布也是冰川变化的重要因素;对比发现该区冰川退缩速率较天山其他区域慢。     

Rock glacier dynamics in a marginal periglacial high mountain environment: Flow, movement (1991–2000) and structure of the Argualas rock glacier, the Pyrenees

The Argualas rock glacier is located on the southern side of the Central Pyrenees (Argualas massif). Vertical electric sounding, debris surface analysis and a topographic survey were performed on this rock glacier between 1991 and 2000. High precision measurement records were obtained using a total station. Horizontal and vertical movements of the rock glacier were measured by means of sixteen steel rods. Horizontal and vertical angles and distances to each rod were measured from three stations on a bedrock ridge. Total and annual average displacements were derived from the emergence value and the horizontal displacement of each rod. Then the horizontal and vertical displacement rates in different sectors of the rock glacier were compared. The inferred surface deformation was characterized by both extensional and compressive flows as well as thinning of the frozen body. The displacement rates showed temporal variations related to atmospheric thermal changes, pointing to a high sensibility of the rock glacier.     

RESPONSE OF A MONTENEGRO GLACIER TO EXTREME SUMMER HEATWAVES IN 2003 AND 2007

The Debeli Namet glacier in the Durmitor massif, Montenegro, is one of the lowest altitude glaciers (2050–2300 m) at this latitude (42–44°N) in the northern hemisphere. The glacier survives well below the climatological equilibrium line altitude because of substantial inputs from avalanching and windblown snow. The glacier survived two of the hottest summers on record in 2003 and 2007, although it experienced significant retreat. However, during the intervening years (2004–2006) the glacier increased in size and advanced, forming a new frontal moraine. This rapid advance was primarily in response to much cooler summer temperatures, close to or cooler than average, and a marked increase in winter precipitation. The rapid growth and decay of the Debeli Namet glacier in response to inter‐annual climate variability highlights the sensitivity of small cirque glaciers to short‐term climate change.     

东帕米尔高原冰川运动特征分析

冰川运动控制着冰量输送变化,为冰川变化和冰川灾害研究提供重要信息.为了探讨东帕米尔高原冰川运动特征及其影响因素,基于ITS_LIVE和GoLIVE分析了不同规模、不同地形条件、表碛/非表碛区域的冰川运动速度状况.研究结果表明:(1)东帕米尔高原冰川平均运动速度为5.31 m·a-1,冰川运动速度与冰川规模相关,表现为大...     

Glacier mapping based on Chinese high-resolution remote sensing GF-1 satellite and topographic data

The precise glacier boundary is a fundamental requirement for glacier inventory,the assessment of climate change and water management in remote mountain areas.However,some glaciers in mountain areas are covered by debris.The high spatial resolution images bring opportunities in mapping debris-covered glaciers.To discuss the capability of Chinese GaoFen-1 satellite lacking the short wave infrared band and thermal infrared band in mapping glaciers,this study distinguished supraglacial terrain from surrounding debris by combining GaoFen-1(GF-1)wide-field-view(WFV)images,the ratio of the thermal infrared imagery and morphometric parameters(DEM and slope)with 30 m resolution.The overall accuracy of 90.94%indicated that this method was effective for mapping supraglacial terrain in mountain areas.Comparing this result with the combination of GF-1 WFV and low-resolution morphometric parameters shows that a high-quality DEM and the thermal infrared band enhanced the accuracy of glacier mapping especially debris-covered ice in steep terrain.The user's and producer's accuracies of glacier area were also improved from 89.67%and 85.95%to 92.83%and 90.34%,respectively.GF data is recommended for mapping heavily debris-covered glaciers and will be combined with SAR data for future studies.     

A geochronological approach to understanding the role of solar activity on Holocene glacier length variability in the Swiss Alps

We present a radiocarbon data set of 71 samples of wood and peat material that melted out or sheared out from underneath eight presentday mid‐latitude glaciers in the Central Swiss Alps. Results indicated that in the past several glaciers have been repeatedly less extensive than they were in the 1990s. The periods when glaciers had a smaller volume and shorter length persisted between 320 and 2500 years. This data set provides greater insight into glacier variability than previously possible, especially for the early and middle Holocene. The radiocarbon‐dated periods defined with less extensive glaciers coincide with periods of reduced radio‐production, pointing to a connection between solar activity and glacier melting processes. Measured long‐term series of glacier length variations show significant correlation with the total solar irradiance. Incoming solar irradiance and changing albedo can account for a direct forcing of the glacier mass balances. Long‐term investigations of atmospheric processes that are in interaction with changing solar activity are needed in order to understand the feedback mechanisms with glacier mass balances.     

Evidencing a large body of ice in a rock glacier,Vanoise Massif,Northern French Alps

The Sachette rock glacier is an active rock glacier located between 2660 and 2480 m a.s.l. in the Vanoise Massif, Northern French Alps (45° 29′ N, 6° 52′ E). In order to characterize its status as permafrost feature, shallow ground temperatures were monitored and the surface velocity measured by photogrammetry. The rock glacier exhibits near‐surface thermal regimes suggesting permafrost occurrence and also displays significant surface horizontal displacements (0.6–1.3 ± 0.6 m yr^–1). In order to investigate its internal structure, a ground‐penetrating radar (GPR) survey was performed. Four constant‐offset GPR profiles were performed and analyzed to reconstruct the stratigraphy and model the radar wave velocity in two dimensions. Integration of the morphology, the velocity models and the stratigraphy revealed, in the upper half of the rock glacier, the good correspondence between widespread high radar wave velocities (>0.15–0.16 m ns^–1) and strongly concave reflector structures. High radar wave velocity (0.165–0.170 m ns^–1) is confirmed with the analysis of two punctual common mid‐point measurements in areas of exposed shallow pure ice. These evidences point towards the existence of a large buried body of ice in the upper part of the rock glacier. The rock glacier was interpreted to result from the former advance and decay of a glacier onto pre‐existing deposits, and from subsequent creep of the whole assemblage. Our study of the Sachette rock glacier thus highlights the rock glacier as a transitional landform involving the incorporation and preservation of glacier ice in permafrost environments with subsequent evolution arising from periglacial processes.     

Supraglacial Debris Supply in the Cuerpo de Hombre paleoglacier (Spanish Central System): Reconstruction and Interpretation of a Rock Avalanche Event

During the deglaciation stages of the last glacial period a rock avalanche took place on the glacier that occupied the upper sector of the Cuerpo de Hombre Valley (Sierra de Béjar). The material displaced during the avalanche fell onto the ice, was transported by the glacier and later deposited as supraglacial ablation till. The cause of the avalanche was the decompression of the valley slopes after they were freed from the glacier ice (stress relaxation). Reconstruction of the ice masses has been carried out to quantify the stress relaxation that produced the collapse. The rock avalanche took place on a lithologically homogeneous slope with a dense fracture network. The avalanche left a 0.4 ha scar on the slope with a volume of displaced material of 623 ± 15 × 10³ m³. The deposit is an accumulation of large, angular, heterometric boulders (1–100 m³ in volume) with a coarse pebble‐size matrix. The avalanche can be explained as a relaxation process. This implies rock decompression once the glacier retreat left the wall ice free (debuttressing). Calculations show that the avalanche took place where the decompression stresses were highest (130–170 kPa). In the Spanish Central System paleoglaciers the largest accumulation of morainic deposits occurred after the glacial maximum and the earliest stages of the ice retreat. The process described here is used as an example to formulate a hypothesis that the largest accumulations of tills were formed in relation to enhanced slope dynamics once some glacier retreat had occurred.     

1978-2015年喀喇昆仑山克勒青河流域冰川变化的遥感监测

本文采用1978、1991、2001和2015年的Landsat MSS、TM、ETM+和OLI遥感影像,通过遥感图像计算机辅助分类和目视解译等方法提取冰川边界,分析喀喇昆仑山克勒青河流域冰川在1978-2015年间的进退变化。结果表明：1978-2015年间研究区冰川面积由1821.70 km2减少至1675.92 km2,减少145.78 km2,占1978年冰川总面积的8.00%;冰川消融率较低,在气候变暖的背景下反而呈现出退缩速率由快变慢的趋势。研究区东南向冰川退缩率明显高于西北向,冰川退缩率随冰川规模的增大而减小。研究区内有27处冰川在1978-2015年间发生过特殊的前进现象,面积与长度显著增加。其中,木斯塔冰川西侧冰川末端在1996-1998年间前进速度为904 m/a,乔戈里冰川东侧冰川末端在2007-2009年间前进速度为446 m/a,5Y654D0097冰川末端在1978-1990年间前进速度为238 m/a,初步判定这三条冰川为跃动冰川。以10 a为滞后期分析研究区周边气象站点资料发现：研究区气温持续升高,降水量以1981年为分界点呈现“先减后增”趋势是冰川退缩速率减慢的原因之一;此外,亚大陆型冰川性质、巨大山势条件和高山冷储作用,也可能是冰川退缩幅度较小的原因。     

1990—2015年喜马拉雅山冰川变化的遥感监测

基于Landsat系列遥感数据,运用比值阈值法（B3/B5）和目视解译,研究1990—2015年喜马拉雅山冰川面积的分布与变化特征。结果表明：25年间研究区冰川面积共减少2553.10 km²,年均退缩率为0.44%/a,研究时段冰川加速退缩。研究区冰川主要分布在西段地区,中段次之,东段最少,近25年来西段、东段和中段地区冰川均表现为退缩趋势,其中东段地区退缩最快,中段最慢。从地形分布和变化特征看,5°~25°范围内冰川的分布面积较多,近25年来各坡度等级冰川均在退缩,其中25°~30°之间冰川面积退缩较快,在极平缓/极陡峭地区退缩较慢。尽管8个坡向上冰川均表现为退缩趋势,但退缩幅度有所差异,北坡与西北坡冰川退缩较慢,其他坡向退缩较快。研究时段表碛物覆盖型与非表碛物覆盖型冰川均在退缩,但后者的退缩幅度较大,表明研究区表碛物在一定程度上抑制了冰川消融。     

RESPONSE OF A TEMPERATE ALPINE VALLEY GLACIER TO CLIMATE CHANGE AT THE DECADAL SCALE

Glacier advance and recession are considered key indicators of climate change. Understanding the relationship between climatic variations and glacial responses is crucial. Here, we apply archival digital photogrammetry to reconstruct the decadal scale glacial history of an unmonitored Alpine valley glacier, the Haut Glacier d'Arolla, Switzerland, and we use the data generated to explore the linkages between glacier recession and climate forcing. High precision digital elevation models were derived. They show continual recession of the glacier since 1967, associated with long‐term climatic amelioration but only a weak reaction to shorter‐term climatic deterioration. Glacier surface velocity estimates obtained using surface particle tracking showed that, unlike for most Swiss glaciers during the late 1970s and early 1980s, ice mass flux from the accumulation zone was too low to compensate for the effects of glacier thinning and subsequent snout recession, especially during the rapid warming that occurred through the 1980s. The results emphasise the dangers of inferring glacier response to climate forcing from measurements of the terminus position only and the importance of using remote sensing methods as an alternative, especially where historical imagery is available.