MHD waves at a spherical interface modelling EIT waves

Eruptive events such as flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are known to generate global waves propagating over distances comparable to the solar radius in different layers of the solar atmosphere. Here we investigate the propagation of coronal EIT waves, modelled as fast magnetoacoustic modes propagating at a spherical interface in the presence of a purely radial magnetic field. Based on a simplified equilibrium we derive the dispersion relation of the waves. The generation and propagation of EIT waves at the spherical interface is studied numerically for different values of spherical degree and preliminary conclusions are reached regarding the properties of EIT waves. (© 2007 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Initiation and propagation of coronal mass ejections

This paper reviews recent progress in the research on the initiation and propagation of CMEs. In the initiation part, several trigger mechanisms are discussed; in the propagation part, the observations and modelings of EIT waves/dimmings, as the EUV counterparts of CMEs, are described.     

Variations of Photospheric Magnetic Field Associated with Flares and CMEs

Using high-cadence magnetograms from the SOHO/MDI we have investigated variations of the photospheric magnetic field during solar flares and CMEs. In the case of a strong X-class flare of May 2, 1998, we have detected variations of magnetic field in a form of a rapidly propagating magnetic wave. During the impulsive phase of the flare we have observed a sudden decrease of the magnetic energy in the flare region. This provides direct evidence of magnetic energy release in solar flares. We discuss the physics of the magnetic field variations, and their relations to the Moreton Hα waves and the coronal waves observed by the EIT.     

Large-Scale Activity in the Bastille Day 2000 Solar Event

We have analyzed dimmings, i.e., regions of temporarily reduced brightness, and manifestations of a coronal wave in the famous event of 14 July 2000 using images produced with the EUV telescope SOHO/EIT. Our analysis was inspired by a paper by Andrews (2001, Solar Phys. 204, 181 (Paper I)), in which this event was studied using running-difference EIT images at 195 Å formed by subtraction of a previous image from each current one. Such images emphasize changes of the brightness, location, and configuration of observed structures occurring during the 12-min interval between two subsequent heliograms. However, they distort the picture of large-scale disturbances caused by a CME, particularly, dimmings. A real picture of dimmings can be obtained from fixed-base difference ‘de-rotated’ images. The latter are formed in two stages: first, the solar rotation is compensated using three-dimensional rotation of all images (‘de-rotation’) to the time of a pre-event heliogram, here 10:00 UT, and then the base heliogram is subtracted from all others. We show real dimmings to be essentially different from those described by Andrews (Paper I). The restructuring of large-scale magnetic fields in the corona in connection with the CME was accompanied by the appearance and growth of two large dimmings. One of them was located along the central meridian, southward of the eruption center, at the place of the pre-eruption arcade. Another dimming occupied the space between the flare region and a remote western active region. Several smaller dimmings were observed virtually over the whole solar disk, especially, within the northwest quadrant. We have also revealed a propagating disturbance with properties of a coronal wave in the northern polar sector, where no dimmings were observed. This fact is discussed in the context of probable association between dimmings and coronal waves. Having suppressed the ‘snowstorm’ produced in the EIT images by energetic particles, we have considered dimming manifestations in all four EIT pass bands of 171, 195, 284, and 304 Å as well as the light curves of the main dimmings including several later images at 195 Å. Our analysis shows that the major cause of the dimmings was density depletion that reached up to 30% in this event. The picture of dimmings implies that the CME in the Bastille Day event was an octopus-like bundle of some magnetic ropes, with the ‘arms’ being connected to several active regions disposed over almost the whole visible solar surface.     

Manifestations of Coronal Mass Ejections in the EUV Range from Data of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">CORONAS-F</Emphasis>/SPIRIT Telescope

We briefly overview results of our study of the large-scale solar activity associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs). The observational material is constituted with data of the SPIRIT telescope aboard the CORONAS-F satellite in the three EUV channels 175, 284, and 304 Å. In particular, we consider a powerful geoeffective event of November 4, 2003, which was not observed by the SOHO/EIT telescope, a series of extremely powerful events of October 2003, and an event of November 18, 2003, with filament eruption. The efficiency of combined analysis of the SPIRIT and EIT data is demonstrated. The analysis confirms the coincidence of many dimmings in different spectral channels, including coronal lines with different excitation temperatures and the transition-region line, as well as the global character and homology of dimmings in recurrent events. The higher cadence SPIRIT observations at 304 Å reveal a slowly propagating large-scale darkening probably caused by absorption of emission in the dense, cold plasma of an eruptive filament.     

The Recovery of CME-Related Dimmings and the ICME’s Enduring Magnetic Connection to the Sun

It is generally accepted that transient coronal holes (TCHs, dimmings) correspond to the magnetic footpoints of CMEs that remain rooted in the Sun as the CME expands out into the interplanetary space. However, the observation that the average intensity of the 12 May 1997 dimmings recover to their pre-eruption intensity in SOHO/EIT data within 48 hours, whilst suprathermal unidirectional electron heat fluxes are observed at 1 AU in the related ICME more than 70 hours after the eruption, leads us to question why and how the dimmings disappear whilst the magnetic connectivity is maintained. We also examine two other CME-related dimming events: 13 May 2005 and 6 July 2006. We study the morphology of the dimmings and how they recover. We find that, far from exhibiting a uniform intensity, dimmings observed in SOHO/EIT data have a deep central core and a more shallow extended dimming area. The dimmings recover not only by shrinking of their outer boundaries but also by internal brightenings. We quantitatively demonstrate that the model developed by Fisk and Schwadron (Astrophys. J. 560, 425, 2001) of interchange reconnections between “open” magnetic field and small coronal loops is a strong candidate for the mechanism facilitating the recovery of the dimmings. This process disperses the concentration of  “open” magnetic field (forming the dimming) out into the surrounding quiet Sun, thus recovering the intensity of the dimmings whilst still maintaining the magnetic connectivity to the Sun. Electronic Supplementary Material  The online version of this article () contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Automatic Detection and Extraction of Coronal Dimmings from SDO/AIA Data

The volume of data anticipated from the Solar Dynamics Observatory/Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (SDO/AIA) highlights the necessity for the development of automatic-detection methods for various types of solar activity. Initially recognized in the 1970s, it is now well established that coronal dimmings are closely associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs), and they are particularly noted as a reliable indicator of front-side (halo) CMEs, which can be difficult to detect in white-light coronagraph data. Existing work clearly demonstrates that several properties derived from the analysis of coronal dimmings can give useful information about the associated CME. The development and implementation of an automated coronal-dimming region detection and extraction algorithm removes visual observer bias, however unintentional, from the determination of physical quantities such as spatial location, area, and volume. This allows for reproducible, quantifiable results to be mined from very large data sets. The information derived may facilitate more reliable early space-weather detection, as well as offering the potential for conducting large-sample studies focused on determining the geo-effectiveness of CMEs, coupled with analysis of their associated coronal dimming signatures. In this paper we present examples of both simple and complex dimming events extracted using our algorithm, which will be run as a module for the SDO/Computer Vision Centre. Contrasting and well-studied events at both the minimum and maximum of solar cycle 23 are identified in Solar and Heliospheric Observatory/Extreme ultra-violet Imaging Telescope (SOHO/EIT) data. A more recent example extracted from Solar and Terrestrial Relations Observatory/Extreme Ultra-Violet Imager (STEREO/EUVI) data is also presented, demonstrating the potential for the anticipated application to SDO/AIA data. The detection part of our algorithm is based largely on the principle of operation of the NEMO software, namely the detection of significant variation in the statistics of the EUV image pixels (Podladchikova and Berghmans in Solar Phys. 228, 265?–?284, 2005). As well as running on historic data sets, the presented algorithm is capable of detecting and extracting coronal dimmings in near real-time.     

Entering The Era Of Automated Cme Recognition: A Review Of Existing Tools

We consider the problem of the observational identification of CMEs. The ever growing importance of space weather has led to new requirements on the timeliness and objectiveness of CME detection. It is not sufficient any more to simply detect CMEs, a complete set of characteristics (speed, direction, mass, chirality) must be reported as soon as possible to estimate its geoeffectiveness. Recent developments in (solar) feature recognition greatly improved the ability to address these new needs. Progress was achieved in automating the detection of CMEs in coronagraphic data. This has led to near-real-time messages alerting the space weather community day and night. In attempting to generate ever-prompter alerts, we can employ a far broader set of solar observations than coronagraphic data alone. At present an extensive set of automatic recognition tools exists for a number of CME-related phenomena occurring in the lower corona. This paper deals with detection techniques for disappearing filaments in Hα images, dimmings, EIT waves and erupting prominences in radio data. We believe that incorporating all automatically generated alerts into one report per CME can provide valuable CME information, especially when no coronagraphic images are available. This paper is thus a quest to reach a maximal success rate with the help of an integrated system of tools acting on a variety of data. Future grid-technology systems will greatly facilitate this.     

Coronal Shocks of November 1997 Revisited: The Cme–Type II Timing Problem

We re-examine observations bearing on the origin of metric type II bursts for six impulsive solar events in November 1997. Previous analyses of these events indicated that the metric type IIs were due to flares (either blast waves or ejecta). Our point of departure was the study of Zhang et al. (2001) based on the Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraphs C1 instrument (occulting disk at 1.1 R₀) that identified the rapid acceleration phase of coronal mass ejections (CMEs) with the rise phase of soft X-ray light curves of associated flares. We find that the inferred onset of rapid CME acceleration in each of the six cases occurred 1–3 min before the onset of metric type II emission, in contrast to the results of previous studies for certain of these events that obtained CME launch times 25–45 min earlier than type II onset. The removal of the CME-metric type II timing discrepancy in these events and, more generally, the identification of the onset of the rapid acceleration phase of CMEs with the flare impulsive phase undercuts a significant argument against CMEs as metric type II shock drivers. In general, the six events exhibited: (1) ample evidence of dynamic behavior [soft X-ray ejecta, extreme ultra-violet imaging telescope (EIT) dimming onsets, and wave initiation (observed variously in H, EUV, and soft X-rays)] during the inferred fast acceleration phases of the CMEs, consistent with the cataclysmic disruption of the low solar atmosphere one would expect to be associated with a CME; and (2) an organic relationship between EIT dimmings (generally taken to be source regions of CMEs) and EIT waves (which are highly associated with metric type II bursts) indicative of a CME-driver scenario. Our analysis indicates that the broad (90 to halo) CMEs observed in the outer LASCO coronagraphs for these impulsive events began life as relatively small-scale structures, with angular spans of 15 in the low corona. A review of on-going work bearing on other aspects (than timing) of the question of the origin of metric type II bursts (CME association; connectivity of metric and decametric-hectometric type II shocks; spatial relationship between CMEs and metric shocks) leads to the conclusion that CMEs remain a strong candidate to be the principal/sole driver of metric type II shocks vis-à-vis flare blast waves/ejecta.     

Origin of Coronal Shocks without Mass Ejections

We present an analysis of all the events (around 400) of coronal shocks for which the shock-associated metric type IIs were observed by many spectrographs during the period April 1997– December 2000. The main objective of this analysis is to give evidence for the type IIs related to only flare-blast waves, and thus to find out whether there are any type II-associated coronal shocks without mass ejections. By carefully analyzing the data from multi-wavelength observations (Radio, GOES X-ray, Hα, SOHO/LASCO and SOHO/EIT-EUV data), we have identified only 30 events for which there were actually no reports of CMEs. Then from the analysis of the LASCO and EIT running difference images, we found that there are some shocks (nearly 40%, 12/30) which might be associated with weak and narrow mass ejections. These weak and narrow ejections were not reported earlier. For the remaining 60% events (18/30), there are no mass ejections seen in SOHO/LASCO. But all of them are associated with flares and EIT brightenings. Pre-assuming that these type IIs are related to the flares, and from those flare locations of these 18 cases, 16 events are found to occur within the central region of the solar disk (longitude ≤45^∘). In this case, the weak CMEs originating from this region are unlikely to be detected by SOHO/LASCO due to low scattering. The remaining two events occurred beyond this longitudinal limit for which any mass ejections would have been detected if they were present. For both these events, though there are weak eruption features (EIT dimming and loop displacement) in the EIT images, no mass ejection was seen in LASCO for one event, and a CME appeared very late for the other event. While these two cases may imply that the coronal shocks can be produced without any mass ejections, we cannot deny the strong relationship between type IIs and CMEs.     

Lasco and eit Observations of the Bastille day 2000 Solar Storm

The period of 10–14 July 2000 saw a large number of energetic solar events ending with a very energetic flare that was associated with a large solar energetic particle event and a fast halo coronal mass ejection (CME) that produced the largest geomagnetic disturbance since 1989. This paper tries to summarize the complex coronal activity observed during this period, in order to establish a background for a number of papers in this topical issue. The GOES X-ray data are presented. Data animations of observations from EIT and LASCO C2 and C3 are presented on the accompanying CD-ROM. The observations around the time of the three X-class flares are considered. EIT observations of the Bastille Day flare show coronal brightening followed by dimming. LASCO had good data coverage for all three events. For one of the flares, no coronal response was seen. The other two flares are associated with halo CMEs. The timing suggests that the start of the flares and CMEs are simultaneous to approximately 30 min. Analysis of the LASCO and EIT images following the Bastille Day flare show the arrival of energetic particles at SOHO at approximately 10:41 UT on 14 July. Individual features of these CMEs have been tracked and the height–time plots used to estimate the dynamics of the CMEs. The initial speed and deceleration of the halo CMEs estimated from the fitting of height–time plots are compared with the in-situ observations at L1. The three flares are identified as the solar sources of three shocks observed at 1 AU. Finally, it is stressed that global heliospheric effects during periods of exceptional activity should consider a cumulative scenario rather than events in isolation.     

The Dependence of the EIT Wave Velocity on the Magnetic Field Strength

“EIT waves” are a wavelike phenomenon propagating in the corona, which was initially observed in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) wavelength by the EUV Imaging Telescope (EIT). Their nature is still elusive, with the debate on-going between fast-mode wave model and non-wave model. In order to distinguish between these models, we investigate the relation between the EIT wave velocity and the local magnetic field in the corona. It is found that the two parameters show significant negative correlation in most of the EIT wave fronts, i.e., the EIT wave propagates more slowly in the regions of stronger magnetic field. Such a result poses a big challenge to the fast-mode wave model, which would predict a strong positive correlation between the two parameters. However, it is demonstrated that such a result can be explained by the fieldline stretching model, i.e., that “EIT waves” are the propagation of apparent brightenings, which are generated by successive stretching of closed magnetic field lines pushed by the erupting flux rope during coronal mass ejections (CMEs).     

Revealing the Fine Structure of Coronal Dimmings and Associated Flows with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hinode</Emphasis>/EIS

We study two CME events on 13 and 14 December 2006 that were associated with large-scale dimmings. We study the eruptions from pre-event on 11 December through the recovery on 15 December, using a combination of Hinode/EIS, SOHO/EIT, SOHO/MDI, and MLSO Hα data. The GOES X-class flares obscured the core dimmings, but secondary dimmings developed remote from the active region (AR) in both events. The secondary dimmings are found to be formed by a removal of bright coronal material from loops in the plage region to the East of the AR. Using Hinode/EIS data, we find that the outflows associated with the coronal-dimming regions are highly structured. The concentrated outflows are located at the footpoints of coronal loops (which exist before, and are re-established after, the eruptions), and these are correlated with regions of positive magnetic elements. Comparative study of the Hinode/EIS and SOHO/EIT data shows that the reduction in outflow velocity is consistent with the recovery in intensity of the studied regions. We find that concentrated downflows develop during the recovery phase of the dimmings and are also correlated with the same positive magnetic elements that were previously related to outflows.     

Mass-Loss Evolution in the EUV Low Corona from SDO/AIA Data

We carry out an analysis of the mass that is evacuated from three coronal dimming regions observed by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) on board the Solar Dynamics Observatory. The three events are unambiguously identified with white-light coronal mass ejections (CMEs) that are associated in turn with surface activity of diverse nature: an impulsive (M-class) flare, a weak (B-class) flare, and a filament eruption without a flare. The use of three AIA coronal passbands allows applying a differential emission measure technique to define the dimming regions and identify their evacuated mass through the analysis of the electronic density depletion associated with the eruptions. The temporal evolution of the mass loss from the three dimmings can be approximated by an exponential equation followed by a linear fit. We determine the mass of the associated CMEs from COR2 data. The results show that the evacuated masses from the low corona represent a considerable amount of the CME mass. We also find that plasma is still being evacuated from the low corona at the time when the CMEs reach the COR2 field of view. The temporal evolution of the angular width of the CMEs, of the dimming regions in the low corona, and of the flux registered by GOES in soft X-rays are all in close relation with the behavior of mass evacuation from the low corona. We discuss the implications of our findings toward a better understanding of the temporal evolution of several parameters associated with the analyzed dimmings and CMEs.     

Solar Energetic Particles and Associated EIT Disturbances in Solar Cycle 23

We explore the link between solar energetic particles (SEPs) observed at 1 AU and large-scale disturbances propagating in the solar corona, named after the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) as EIT waves, which trace the lateral expansion of a coronal mass ejection (CME). A comprehensive search for SOHO/EIT waves was carried out for 179 SEP events during Solar Cycle 23 (1997?–?2006). 87 % of the SEP events were found to be accompanied by EIT waves. In order to test if the EIT waves play a role in the SEP acceleration, we compared their extrapolated arrival time at the footpoint of the Parker spiral with the particle onset in the 26 eastern SEP events that had no direct magnetic connection to the Earth. We find that the onset of proton events was generally consistent with this scenario. However, in a number of cases the first near-relativistic electrons were detected too early. Furthermore, the electrons had in general only weakly anisotropic pitch-angle distributions. This poses a problem for the idea that the SEPs were accelerated by the EIT wave or in any other spatially confined region in the low corona. The presence of weak electron anisotropies in SEP events from the eastern hemisphere suggests that transport processes in interplanetary space, including cross-field diffusion, play a role in giving the SEPs access to a broad range of helio-longitudes.     

日冕物质抛射的低频射电特征

日冕物质抛射(ChIEs)经常被观测到和其他日面活动相伴生，太阳耀斑、日珥爆发、盔状冕流等许多太阳现象，都与它有直接或间接的关系。射电观测是研究CMEs的一种重要的补充工具。多频率的射电成像观测能很好地研究CMEs的初始阶段，而且可以得到关于CMEs触发机制特征的更多信息。概括了CMEs与低频射电的关系，介绍了低频射电的观测仪器，分析了CMEs低频射电所表现出来的特征，考虑了CMEs的初发机制，总结了尚待解决的问题，表明了CMEs研究是基于多类数据和全电磁辐射波段的。     

Absorption Phenomena and a Probable Blast Wave in the 13 July 2004 Eruptive Event

We present a case study of the 13 July 2004 solar event, in which disturbances caused by eruption of a filament from an active region embraced a quarter of the visible solar surface. Remarkable are the absorption phenomena observed in the SOHO/EIT 304 Å channel, which were also visible in the EIT 195 Å channel, in the Hα line, and even in total radio flux records. Coronal and Moreton waves were also observed. Multispectral data allowed reconstructing an overall picture of the event. An explosive filament eruption and related impulsive flare produced a CME and blast shock, both of which decelerated and propagated independently. Coronal and Moreton waves were kinematically close and both decelerated in accordance with an expected motion of a coronal blast shock. The CME did not resemble a classical three-component structure, probably because some part of the ejected mass fell back onto the Sun. Quantitative evaluations from different observations provide close estimates of the falling mass, ～3×10¹⁵?g, which is close to the estimated mass of the CME. The falling material was responsible for the observed large-scale absorption phenomena, in particular, shallow widespread moving dimmings observed at 195 Å. By contrast, deep quasi-stationary dimmings observed in this band near the eruption center were due to plasma density decrease in coronal structures.     

The Relation Between Large-Scale Coronal Propagating Fronts and Type II Radio Bursts

Large-scale, wave-like disturbances in extreme-ultraviolet (EUV) and type II radio bursts are often associated with coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Both phenomena may signify shock waves driven by CMEs. Taking EUV full-disk images at an unprecedented cadence, the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA) onboard the Solar Dynamics Observatory has observed the so-called EIT waves or large-scale coronal propagating fronts (LCPFs) from their early evolution, which coincides with the period when most metric type II bursts occur. This article discusses the relation of LCPFs as captured by AIA with metric type II bursts. We show examples of type II bursts without a clear LCPF and fast LCPFs without a type II burst. Part of the disconnect between the two phenomena may be due to the difficulty in identifying them objectively. Furthermore, it is possible that the individual LCPFs and type II bursts may reflect different physical processes and external factors. In particular, the type II bursts that start at low frequencies and high altitudes tend to accompany an extended arc-shaped feature, which probably represents the 3D structure of the CME and the shock wave around it, and not just its near-surface track, which has usually been identified with EIT waves. This feature expands and propagates toward and beyond the limb. These events may be characterized by stretching of field lines in the radial direction and may be distinct from other LCPFs, which may be explained in terms of sudden lateral expansion of the coronal volume. Neither LCPFs nor type II bursts by themselves serve as necessary conditions for coronal shock waves, but these phenomena may provide useful information on the early evolution of the shock waves in 3D when both are clearly identified in eruptive events.     

An Attempt to Detect Coronal Mass Ejections in Lyman-α Using SOHO Swan

In this study, the possibility that coronal mass ejections (CMEs) may be observed in neutral Lyman-α emission was investigated. An observing campaign was initiated for SWAN (Solar Wind ANisotropies), a Lyman-α scanning photometer on board the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) dedicated to monitoring the latitude distribution of the solar wind from its imprints on the interstellar sky background. This was part of SOHO Joint Observing Program (JOP) 159 and was an exploratory investigation as it was not known how, or even if, CMEs interact with the solar wind and interstellar neutral hydrogen at this distance (≈60 and 120 R _S). The study addresses the lack of methods for tracking CMEs beyond the field-of-view of current coronagraphs (30 R _S). In our first method we used LASCO, white-light coronagraphs on SOHO, and EIT, an extreme ultraviolet imaging telescope also on SOHO, to identify CME candidates which, subject to certain criteria, should have been observable in SWAN. The criteria included SWAN observation time and location, CME position angle, and extrapolated speed. None of the CME candidates that we discuss were identified in the SWAN data. For our second method we analyzed all of the SWAN data for 184 runs of the observing campaign, and this has yielded one candidate CME detection. The candidate CME appears as a dimming of the background Lyman-α intensity representing ≈10% of the original intensity, moving radially away from the Sun. Multiple candidate CMEs observed by LASCO and EIT were found which may have caused this dimming. Here we discuss the campaign, data analysis technique and statistics, and the results.