Biological indicators in the Caribbean coastal zone and their role in integrated coastal management

Caribbean coastal ecosystems are increasingly being threatened by natural and anthropogenic factors. The scale of these factors is at local, national, regional and global levels. Threats include the effects of fisheries and extraction, eutrophication, siltation, and pollution as well as global climate events such as El Niño and global climate change. Integrated coastal management (ICM) should clearly demonstrate the adverse effects of environmental impacts, thus justifying the need for mitigation and should evaluate the success of management efforts. ICM requires robust indicators that gauge the ‘health’ of the coast in relation to environmental, social and economic activities. Biological indicators (bioindicators) offer a signal of the biological condition in an ecosystem. Using bioindicators as an early warning of pollution or degradation in an ecosystem can help sustain critical resources. Biological indicators in the Caribbean are focused around particular ecosystems, especially coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangrove forests and include a range of biological parameters relating to particular species, groups of species and biological processes. The use of these indicators is critically reviewed and the presence or absence of a relevant framework for their use in Caribbean ICM programs is discussed.     

The role of coastal setbacks in the context of coastal erosion and climate change

Coastal erosion and storms represent a source of risk for settlements and infrastructure along the coast. At the same time, coastal natural assets, including landscape, are threatened by increasing development mainly driven by tourism. The Mediterranean coast is especially vulnerable to these processes, considering its high biological and cultural diversity. An additional challenge is represented by climate change, as it will force coastal communities to apply more or less drastic adaptation strategies. Coastal setbacks, used to protect coastal communities and infrastructure from storms and erosion, and to preserve coastal habitats and landscapes from degradation, is one of the main instruments suggested by the Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management of the Barcelona Convention, entered into force on the 24 of March 2011. Its implementation has the potential to influence coastal policies in other regions, such as the neighbouring Black Sea.The CONSCIENCE project has formalized concepts and conducted specific studies to provide new tools for coastal erosion management practice. The objective of this paper is to present a synthesis of the research conducted into coastal setbacks for coastal erosion management and climate change adaptation. This is done by analysing the requirement of the Protocol, current processes and management practices in two case study areas (Costa Brava Bays in Spain and Danube Delta, in Romania) and the new challenges posed by climate change.     

A climate-informed,ecosystem approach to fisheries management

This paper outlines the benefits of using the framework for an ecosystem approach to fisheries management (EAFM) for dealing with the inevitable yet unclear impacts of climate change and ocean acidification on coastal fisheries. With a focus on the Asia-Pacific region, it summarizes the projected biological and socio-economic effects of increased emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) for coastal fisheries and illustrates how all the important dimensions of climate change and ocean acidification can be integrated into the steps involved in the EAFM planning process. The activities required to harness the full potential of an EAFM as an adaptation to climate change and ocean acidification are also described, including: provision of the necessary expertise to inform all stakeholders about the risks to fish habitats, fish stocks and catches due to climate change; promotion of trans-disciplinary collaboration; facilitating the participation of all key stakeholders; monitoring the wider fisheries system for climate impacts; and enhancing resources and capacity to implement an EAFM. By channeling some of the resources available to the Asia-Pacific region to adapt to climate change into an EAFM, developing countries will not only build resilience to the ecological and fisheries effects of climate change, they will also help address the habitat degradation and overfishing presently reducing the productivity of coastal fisheries.     

Vulnerability and adaptation of coastal communities to climate variability and sea-level rise: Their implications for integrated coastal management in Cavite City,Philippines

Coastal areas are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise. These impacts will exacerbate the risks posed by the continuing environmental degradation confronting the coastal communities.Adopting a participatory research approach, the study examines the vulnerability of socioeconomic groups among the coastal population in Cavite City, Philippines, their current adaptation strategies and their adaptive capacity to cope with the impacts of climate variability and extremes and sea-level rise. Under a future scenario of a 1-m accelerated sea-level rise (ASLR), the study also looks into its potential effects on these urban coastal communities and ecosystems.In the context of poverty reduction and sustainable development, this study suggests a local framework for integrating adaptation strategies and actions into integrated coastal management (ICM) planning. It also recommends appropriate policy and institutional reform, capacity building and improved knowledge management towards increasing the resilience and adaptive capacity of these coastal communities to current and future climate risks.     

Pathways of integrated coastal management from national policy to local implementation: Enabling climate change adaptation

Integrated coastal management (ICM) has been developing concomitantly with the realisation of the severity of the potential impacts of climate change. The discourse on climate change and adaptation has also included the awareness that adaptation must take place at all levels of government, particularly local government. Climate change is expected to have significant impacts on the physical, social, environmental and economic environments of coastal cities and towns, and in particular on the poor and vulnerable communities within these cities and towns. The crucial role that local government can play in climate protection and building cities' and communities' resilience to climate change is widely recognised at the global level. This paper explores the legal and policy connexion between ICM, local government and climate change in Mozambique and South Africa, two developing countries in Africa. The state of institutionalisation of coastal management at national through to local government is also examined. The authors contend that the state, character and maturity of the ICM policy domain can create an enabling environment within which local government agencies can prepare for future impacts of climate change. Conversely it can also limit, delay and hinder climate change adaptation. The paper concludes with the identification of some key success factors for assessing the effectiveness of the existing policy and legal frameworks to respond to the challenges of climate change. It also identifies some key principles to be included in future legislative reform to promote ICM, cooperative governance and greater preparedness for climate change at local government level.     

Towards climate adaptation and coastal governance in Ireland: Integrated architecture for effective management?

Coastal environments are susceptible to a range of impacts arising from medium and long-term climate change. However, as Ireland's population and industrial centres are concentrated in coastal locations, Ireland's coastal communities will be particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Therefore, making the best use of existing knowledge to inform the establishment of governance structures capable of facilitating the measures and actions which may soon be required is a national imperative. Coastal communities worldwide have turned to integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) as a process to deliver sustainable development. This paper explores how experience gained from ICZM implementation can be harnessed to inform the development and implementation of climate adaptation policies, with a particular focus on the coastal zone. Using the principles and conceptual basis of Earth System Governance – an emerging approach to analyse complexity of governance under global environmental change – the paper maps the architecture of ICZM and climate governance in Ireland. The research identifies the main barriers to, and opportunities for, integrated application of the two policy domains. Barriers include the fragmentation of governance structures and responsibilities of key stakeholders, a lack of coordinated support for ICZM implementation at the national level, and a relatively weak awareness of the specifics of adaptation at the local level. Opportunities include the availability of expertise gathered from phases of ICZM implementation in Ireland, which encompasses mechanisms for science-policy integration, and invaluable experience of stakeholder participation and interaction. Current political and scientific support at national and EU levels give an additional impetus to climate research and actions which may bring additional opportunities and resources to coastal governance in Ireland.     

Marine dependent livelihoods and resilience to environmental change: A case study of Anguilla

There is increasing concern over the consequences of environmental change for people and communities that depend on already fragile marine resources, given the mounting evidence of sustained over-exploitation and climate change impacts on marine systems. In order to explore the potential social resilience of marine-dependent livelihoods to environmental change, interviews with fishers and marine-based tourism operators in the Caribbean island of Anguilla were undertaken, to identify the impacts of hurricane events on marine livelihoods, the perceptions of resource-users and their potential adaptability to future change. For both sectors of resource-users, there is evidence that they have diversified livelihoods to achieve financial security, which may provide resilience to future climate related impacts or resource variability. In addition, specific behavioural changes that have been developed following previous hurricane events, e.g. removal of fish pots during hurricane months, or bringing boats to shore, indicate fishers' flexibility to changing conditions. However, strong personal and cultural attachment to occupations, particularly among fishers, may hinder resilience. Additionally, the reliance of all of these marine resource-users on the climate-dependent tourism industry may undermine their capacity to cope with future environmental change. Many of these problems are common throughout the Caribbean, as thousands of marine-dependent livelihoods are vulnerable to marine degradation and climate change impacts. Urgent attention is therefore required to support the development of adaptive, sustainable management of marine resources that may enhance resilience to environmental change.     

The role of research networks for science-policy collaboration in coastal areas

This paper reviews the approach taken by several UK coastal partnerships in developing research strategies and programmes. It reports on the status of these research initiatives and describes how the co-ordination and communication of scientific research have been approached through active partnerships with universities and the wider research community. Results of semi-structured interviews are followed by in-depth case studies of research networks on the Sefton Coast (focusing on coastal morphology) and the Severn Estuary (focusing on coastal change and climate change impacts). The results reveal the constraints and opportunities that exist in bringing together a variety of knowledge holders in the coastal zone. The paper identifies key elements of these initiatives and highlights lessons that can be applied to the development of other research initiatives in order to achieve science supported, ecosystem-based management.     

Ocean and coastal issues and policy responses in the Caribbean

The Paper presents the regional perspective on the conditions and efforts for the integrated coastal management (ICM) that exist in the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR).The Caribbean Action Plan was adopted in 1981 with an initial workplan of activities of evaluation and control of marine pollution, evaluation of impacts on the coastal area, fishing studies, watershed management, evaluation of natural hazard effects, energy accounting systems studies, urbanisation of the coastal area, building capacity and training. The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the WCR is the only regional legal framework for the protection and sustainable development of marine resources.The Paper describes some region-wide ICM-related programme initiated or supported by the CEP as well as actions at the national level. Other ICM-related general activities and training programmes of CEP are also presented.Trends in national policies in ICM and current developments and issues are also highlighted and recommendations made.     

Coastal aquaculture,mangrove deforestation and blue carbon emissions: Is REDD+ a solution?

Globally, coastal aquaculture particularly shrimp farming has been under huge criticism because of its environmental impacts including devastating effects on mangrove forests. However, mangroves are ecologically and economically important forests, and the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics that provide a wide range of ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. Carbon emissions are likely to have been the dominant cause of climate change and blue carbon emissions are being critically augmented through mangrove deforestation. Because of mangrove deforestation, different climatic variables including coastal flooding, cyclone, drought, rainfall, salinity, sea-level rise, and sea surface temperature have dramatic effects on coastal aquaculture. Mangrove forests have been instrumental in augmenting resilience to climate change. The “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD)” program can help to restore mangroves which in turn increases options for adaptation to climate change. However, technical and financial assistance with institutional support are needed to implement REDD+.     

Economic feasibility of using offshore oil and gas structures in the Gulf of Mexico for platform-based aquaculture

The increasing global demand for animal protein is a major ecological concern due to its impacts on land use, climate change, global grain supply and fisheries. One method for harvesting animal protein is to grow marine fish. This is widely practiced in coastal environments, but also leads to environmental problems associated with habitat loss and nutrient loading. One alternative is to move marine aquaculture further offshore, away from coastal land-use conflicts and towards ocean currents, which can efficiently dispose wastes. This concept creates a logistical challenge, however, since operators have to transport large amounts of food, fish and fuel to and from offshore cages on a regular basis and in varied weather conditions. In this paper, we discuss the economic feasibility of using offshore oil and gas platforms as bases for open ocean aquaculture in the Gulf of Mexico. We develop net-present value models of a platform-based operation and describe sensitivity analysis of the model output. We conclude that offshore platform-based mariculture may be commercially viable under favorable assumptions, that its viability requires economies of scale and depends principally on the yield per unit of cage volume achieved. The limitations of the analysis are described.     

Sea-level rise research and dialogue in North Carolina: Creating windows for policy change

Coastal areas are among the world's most vulnerable landscapes to impacts related to climate change, including inundation from sea-level rise (SLR), increased exposure to shoreline erosion, and greater frequency and intensity of storms. The status of research on the physical, ecological, and socio-economic effects of vulnerability to SLR and progress toward planning for its consequences varies from region to region worldwide. Here, we synthesize the results of three decades of SLR research and the development of coastal management policies in North Carolina, USA. We identify the major factors responsible for opening new policy ‘windows’ that address SLR, including how stakeholders have developed an increased understanding of the risks, the extent of public dialogue about potential response strategies, and advances in political receptivity to policy change. Research and policy progress in North Carolina continue to provide a model for other regions to help guide and evaluate the development of coastal policies.     

近四十年来冀津海岸带土地利用时空变化及驱动因素

冀津海岸带是国内港口和围填海工程集中分布区之一,高强度开发活动对土地利用变化产生深远影响。本研究基于中科院土地利用遥感监测数据,在原有分类系统基础上增加了养殖盐田用地、待利用地、滨海滩涂、浅海海域等4类利用类型,分析了改革开放以来土地利用时空变化特征及其驱因素。结果表明：（1）近40 a内土地利用总体动态度可达0.48%,土地利用强度不断上升,土地类型的主要转移方向为建设用地、养殖盐田用地及待利用地;（2）土地利用变化的峰值时段为2000-2010年,变化区域在空间上集中分布在距离海岸带3~8 km范围内,即黄骅、滨海新区、曹妃甸围填海区域及乐亭沿海陆域。地理加权回归结果显示,地形、中心城市、GDP、人口、港口等因素是对土地利用强度产生主要影响的因素,且人口及港口建设的驱动效应有所增强。土地财政依赖、过度超前规划是待利用地激增的主要政策性驱动因素,近10 a来的基本农田和滨海湿地保护政策降低了耕地和滩涂的缩减量。当前,冀津沿海地区应进一步提高待利用地使用效率,加强土地利用高强度变化区域的生态环境监测与修复。     

Quantifying the reefscape transformation of a coastal Caribbean coral reef during a phase shift and the associated coastal landscape change

Caribbean coral reefs are under strong natural and human pressures and many have undergone phase shifts as a result of local and global change. However few studies have quantified the extent of these phase shifts and the potential impacts that they have on coral reef communities. A temporal comparative analysis of several coral reefscape and landscape metrics was conducted for data from Mahahual, Quintana Roo, Mexico, between the years 2000 and 2006, when a phase shift occurred. Landscape metrics were calculated from coral reef and coastal cover maps obtained by multispectral satellite image classification using IKONOS satellite imagery. These metrics showed that the coastal landscape and reefscape of Mahahual lost 85 ha of vegetation cover and 43 ha of coral cover over 6 years, respectively. Coastal landscape transformation was induced by the construction of a cruise ship pier and multiple associated tourist developments along the coast, such as hotels and restaurants, meanwhile alteration of the reefscape may be associated with potential stressors such as coastal development, bleaching events and hurricanes.     

Development and application of a methodology for vulnerability assessment of climate change in coastal cities

This research is based on the need to develop methodology for climate change vulnerability assessment in coastal cities. While there have been some studies on the development of methodologies for vulnerability assessment on a national scale, there have been few attempts to develop a method for local vulnerability assessment with application to coastal cities. The objective of this study was to develop a general methodology to assess vulnerability to climate change and to apply it to the metropolitan coastal city of Busan in South Korea. We followed the conceptual framework for assessing climate change vulnerability provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which is composed of climate exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Sea level rises of 0.5 m, 1 m, 2 m, and 3 m were considered as the climate exposure. Sensitivity to sea level rise was measured based on the percentage of flooded area calculated using flood simulation with a GIS tool. The population density and the population at age 65 years and over were also included in the calculation of sensitivity index. Sensitivities to heat wave and heavy rainstorm were quantified using the expert opinions from the Delphi survey and information on land use classification. Adaptive capacity was assessed in three sections: economic capability, infrastructure, and institutional capabilities. By combining the adaptive capacity and three different sensitivities, vulnerability to sea level rise (SLR-V), vulnerability to heavy rainstorm (HR-V), and vulnerability to heat wave (HW-V) were separately evaluated in 16 counties of Busan. Using cluster analysis, we could classify four major groups of counties based on SLR-V, HR-V, HW-V, and reported damage cost. For clustered groups, different adaptation strategies were suggested based on the different vulnerability patterns. Application of our methodology to Busan indicated that our methodology is easy to use and provides concrete policy implications when setting up adaptation strategies. The methodology developed in this study could also be used in mainstreaming climate change into Integrated Coastal Management (ICM).     

Climate change, sea level rise and integrated coastal zone management: An IPCC approach

Expansion of economic activities, urbanisation, increased resource use and population growth are continuously increasing the vulnerability of the coastal zone. This vulnerability is now further raised by the threat of climate change and accelerated sea level rise. The potentially severe impacts force policy-makers to also consider long-term planning for climate change and sea level rise. For reasons of efficiency and effectiveness this long-term planning should be integrated with existing short-term plans, thus creating an Integrated Coastal Zone Management programme.As a starting point for coastal zone management, the assessment of a country's or region's vulnerability to accelerated sea level rise is of utmost importance. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has developed a common methodology for this purpose. Studies carried out according to this Common Methodology have been compared and combined, from which general conclusions on local, regional and global vulnerability have been drawn, the latter in the form of a Global Vulnerability Assessment.In order to address the challenge of coping with climate change and accelerated sea level rise, it is essential to foresee the possible impacts, and to take precautionary action. Because of the long lead times needed for creating the required technical and institutional infrastructures, such action should be taken in the short term. Furthermore, it should be part of a broader coastal zone management and planning context. This will require a holistic view, shared by the different institutional levels that exist, along which different needs and interests should be balanced.     

全球气候变化对我国海岸和近海工程的影响

全球气候变暖导致北半球中高纬度海冰冰情变化、海平面上升以及台风和风暴潮等自然灾害强度和频率加大等事件的发生。在全球气候变暖的大背景下,我国渤海和北黄海的冰情持续偏轻,2006年中国海域平均海平面上升速度高于全球水平。从我国海岸和近海工程安全与未来规划和建设的角度论述了全球气候变化及其伴生事件可能带来的各种影响,并提出了相应的应对措施。     

北部湾沿海土地利用变化时空特征及情景分析

基于遥感技术监测北部湾沿海2000年~2010年土地利用变化特征,应用多要素数据和LogisticCA-Markov耦合模型模拟土地利用变化并进行多情景分析。结果表明:2000年~2010年,耕地是土地转化的主要来源,城镇、农村居民点及交通工矿的扩张主要来自于耕地,城镇化加剧增加了耕地保护的压力;2005年~2010年,沿海围填海的速度较快,导致海岸线形态发生显著的变化以及海岸带脆弱性的加剧;基于区域环境与生态保护、经济社会发展的历史过程特征和相关规划,设计既有趋势延续、城镇化优先、生态保护优先3种情景,模拟得到2020年、2025年的土地利用分布数据;综合土地利用变化的历史特征和情景分析的结果,提出未来土地利用优化的策略与措施,包括:优化城镇化空间布局及其发展质量,严格保护沿海湿地尤其是红树林湿地,变化热点区域合理规划未来的土地利用方向等。     

气候变化中海洋和冰冻圈的变化、影响及风险

本文系统梳理了IPCC 《气候变化中的海洋和冰冻圈特别报告》(SROCC)的主要结论,并对主要观点进行了解读。报告主要关注全球变暖背景下高山、极地、海洋和沿海地区现在和未来的变化及其对人类和生态系统的影响,以及实现气候适应发展路径的方案。在全球变暖背景下,冰冻圈大面积萎缩,冰川冰盖质量损失,积雪减少,北极海冰范围和厚度减小,多年冻土升温,全球海洋持续增温,1993年以来,海洋变暖和吸热速度增加了一倍以上。同时,海洋表面酸化加剧,海洋含氧量减少。全球平均海平面呈加速上升趋势,2006—2015年全球海平面上升速率为3.6 mm/yr,是1901—1990年的2.5倍,但存在区域差异。高山、极地和海洋的生态系统的物种组成、分布和服务功能均发生变化,并对人类社会产生了显著负面影响。极端海洋气候事件发生频率增多,强度加大。1982年以来,全球范围内海洋热浪的发生频率增加了一倍,且范围更广,持续时间更长。海平面持续上升加剧了洪涝、海水入侵、海岸侵蚀等海岸带灾害,并影响沿海生态系统。海洋及冰冻圈的变化及其影响在未来一定时期仍将持续,应对这些影响而面临的挑战,应加强基于生态系统的适应和可再生能源管理,强化海岸带地区的海平面上升综合应对,打造积极有效、可持续和具有韧性的气候变化应对方案。     

不同气候情景下中国滨海城市海岸极值水位重现期预估

气候变化背景下,海平面上升叠加台风—风暴潮、天文大潮等产生的海岸极值水位事件趋多增强,对我国滨海城市社会经济可持发展构成了严重威胁。为认识未来我国滨海城市海岸极值水位危害性（强度和频率）的变化,本文首先采用第五次国际耦合模式比较计划（CMIP5）数据,分析了不同气候情景下（RCP2.6, 4.5, 8.5,简称为RCPs）下,未来不同年代（2030年、2050年和2100年）我国滨海城市沿岸海平面变化幅度;其次,基于沿海验潮站的历史观测资料和文献数据,分析了未来热带气旋强度变化对海岸极值水位的影响;最后,利用皮尔逊Ⅲ型（P-Ⅲ）水文概率曲线方法,预估了不同气候（RCPs）情景下未来不同年代（2030年、2050年和2100年）我国9个滨海城市海岸极值水位重现期的变化。结果表明：（1）在不同气候情景下,我国滨海城市沿海平均海平面均呈现上升趋势,其中,到21世纪末,长三角地区沿海海平面上升幅度最大,上升速度比全国平均高出约30%;（2）热带气旋的强度与台风—风暴潮的增水幅度存在正相关关系。预计到21世纪末,热带气旋的整体强度很可能将增强,热带气旋引发的台风—风暴潮的增水幅度较当前很可能有明显提高。（3）未来我国滨海城市沿海极值水位将有显著增高的趋势,当前极值水位的重现期将明显缩短。到21世纪末,我国滨海城市当前百年一遇的极值水位,重现期几乎都将缩短至20年一遇以下,其中,大连、青岛、上海和厦门等城市海岸极值水位重现期很可能缩短为（或低于）1年一遇。本文虽在一定程度上反映了不同气候情景下海岸洪水危害性的变化,但对于未来热带气旋的变化及其影响的研究尚有待进一步深入。