Nitrate in groundwater and the unsaturated zone in (semi)arid northern China: baseline and factors controlling its transport and fate

Knowledge of the baseline of groundwater nitrate is essential for water quality management. As large-scale anthropogenic activities, especially utilization of chemical fertilizers began from the 1950s in most countries, such as China, the baseline of groundwater nitrate can be determined from pre-modern water using tritium and statistical analysis. In the (semi)arid northern China, the median values of nitrate baseline for the three large regions (Tarim river basin, TRB; Loess Plateau of China, LPC; North China Plain, NCP) range from 2 to 9 mg/L (as NO₃). Several main factors control nitrate content in the unsaturated zone moisture and in groundwater, e.g., nitrate input, sediment moisture movement (direction and rate), and depth of water table at the macroscopic scale in (semi)arid areas, where nitrate loss by denitrification can be limited. Sixteen unsaturated zone profiles (638 sediment samples in total) with depths ranging from 5 to 18.25 m were sampled to demonstrate how those factors affect groundwater nitrate. As sediment moisture moves upward from the water table in the TRB case, a large inventory of nitrate in the unsaturated zone with evapo-transpired origin would never enter groundwater and groundwater nitrate contents remain at the baseline level. On the contrary, in the LPC and NCP, nitrate from fertilizers may pass through the unsaturated zone and eventually reach the water table to pollute groundwater. It is also noticed that there is a time lag between land-use change and groundwater quality response, due to the buffering capacity of the thick unsaturated zone, to which attention should be paid regarding water quality management.     

包气带硝酸盐分布的差异性及其形成机理:以正定、栾城为例

在地表等量氮输入条件下,包气带中硝酸盐含量分布是其抗污染能力的直接表征。阐明不同包气带中硝酸盐分布的差异并分析其成因对于评价下覆含水层的硝酸盐污染脆弱性、保护地下水资源免遭硝酸盐污染,具有重要意义。本文基于太行山山前冲洪积扇上栾城和正定两个16m深包气带硝酸盐含量数据,指出两个剖面上包气带中硝酸盐分布特征的差异性。分析研究区的施肥历史、大气降水的入渗补给强度及土壤有机质含量,认为包气带水分运移速度和反硝化能力是导致包气带硝酸盐分布差异的两个关键因素。在分析N同位素测试技术进步的基础上,指出利用同位素技术对包气带中的反硝化能力的定量化研究有望取得新进展。     

Holistic assessment of groundwater resources and regional environmental problems in the North China Plain

Water balance components of the North China Plain (NCP) were analyzed, indicating the decrease both in precipitation and evaporation. The decreased precipitation and expansion of water use for agriculture, industrial and domestic purposes have caused a water crisis, which was managed until now by diverting water from the Yellow River and over exploitation of groundwater. The groundwater resource was assessed by estimating its recharge in both upper unconfined and lower confined layers, yielding a total value of 1.65 × 10¹⁰ m³/a. Total groundwater use was estimated and judged by the actual water table drawdown. Salt accumulation, water table decrease, fluoride and nitrate pollution were all found to be major regional environmental problems. Furthermore, heavy metals were found in high content in the soil and surface water in suburbs of large cities, posing a potential risk of pollution in the groundwater. It has been verified by isotropic data that dry conditions have occurred since 10 ka and are therefore part of the natural process. Possible solutions for water crises in the NCP are proposed.     

包气带在干旱半干旱地区地下水补给研究中的应用

在干旱半干旱地区,包气带的溶质和同位素剖面不但可以提供较长时间尺度上的地下水补给信息,而且记录了过去气候变化与环境变化信息。本文基于学科组近10年的研究成果,以鄂尔多斯盆地为例（包括南部的黄土高原和北部的沙漠高原）,将包气带和饱和带结合起来,利用多种环境示踪技术,提升了包气带在干旱半干旱地区地下水研究中的潜力,并将其应用到地下水补给历史重建、地下水补给机制确定、植被变化对地下水补给影响评价和地下水污染物全过程示踪中。研究表明,由于在干旱半干旱地区,包气带较厚且补给量有限,地下水和现今的浅表水文过程未达到水力平衡,如在沙漠高原西部,近2 500 a降水尚储存在包气带13 m以浅,地下水是4 000 a以前补给的,其水化学特征与浅部包气带水差异巨大;而在黄土高原,补给量较大,但包气带巨厚,年降水仍需要几十到上百年时间入渗到地下水（但并不意味着没有补给,其土壤水在包气带中平均入渗速率为0.1~0.3 m·a-1）,包气带浅部溶质含量较深部和地下水中的高;典型黄土塬区的地下水均不含氚,地下水年龄在几百到上万年。黄土内部层状均匀的土壤质地特征和相对较老的地下水年龄揭示的均匀活塞流入渗是黄土塬区浅层地下水补给的主要方式。黄土高原退耕还林还草和沙漠区植被恢复导致地下水补给呈现不同程度的减少,反映在包气带上表现为溶质含量的增加,可用于定量化确定地下水补给量的变化。本文强化了包气带在干旱半干旱地区地下水补给研究中的作用,在未来地下水资源评价、地下水污染全过程刻画中应得到重视。     

Assessment of Groundwater Vulnerability in Upper Betwa River Watershed using GIS based DRASTIC Model

Groundwater, the most vital water resource being used for irrigation, domestic and industrial purposes is nowadays under severe threat of contamination. Groundwater contamination risk assessment is an effective tool for groundwater management. In the study, a DRASTIC model which is based on the seven hydrogeological parameters viz: depth of water, net-recharge, aquifer media, soil media, topography, impact of vadose zone and hydraulic conductivity was used to evaluate the groundwater pollution potentiality of upper Betwa watershed. ArcGIS was used to create the ground water vulnerability map by overlaying the seven layers. Based on groundwater vulnerability map, the watershed has been divided in three vulnerable zones viz; low vulnerability zone with 42.83 km² of area, moderate with 369.21 km² area and high having 270.96 km² of area. Furthermore, the DRASTIC model has been validated by nitrate concentration over the area. Results of validation have shown that in low vulnerable zone, no nitrate contamination has been recorded. While in the moderate zone nitrate has been found in the range of 1.6-10ppm. However, in high vulnerable zone 11-40ppm of nitrate concentration in groundwater has been recorded, which proves that the DRASTIC model is applicable for the prediction of groundwater vulnerability in the watershed and in similar areas too.     

西北地区地下水水量-水位双控指标确定研究——以民勤盆地为例

地下水是西北内陆河流域干旱半干旱地区重要的供水水源、生态因子和环境因子。当前缺乏针对西北干旱半干旱地区特点的地下水水量和水位双控管理指标确定方法研究,无法为西北地区开展流域水资源管理生态保护提供技术支撑。本研究基于地下水可持续利用和生态保护的原则,提出了一套确定西北地区地下水水量-水位双控指标的技术方案。采用“以位定量”的思路,依据指标监测井代表的不同地下水功能区的地下水管理水位,确定水位指标区间值;将通过天然植被排泄的地下水量作为不可袭夺的排泄项,以数值模拟方法预报求解满足水位指标约束的地下水开采量,计算水量指标区间值。以民勤盆地为研究区开展示例研究,依据技术方案计算得到水位指标的下限阈值为埋深5.00～49.37 m,上限阈值为埋深0.00～5.00 m,水量指标上限为6 000×104 m3/a,下限为10 000×104 m3/a。采用2012—2016年区内实际开采量和监测水位变化趋势进行验证,当开采量在水量指标区间内运行时,水位也基本在水位指标区间内变化。该技术方法可以为西北地区开展双控管理提供一定的技术支撑。     

环渤海平原土壤盐分不同聚型的水动力学特征

为了解环渤海低平原微咸水灌溉的土壤容盐能力问题,对大量野外监测和采样测试数据进行了研究。结果表明,该平原的土壤盐分剖面分布特征具有表聚型、中聚型和底聚型3种类型,其与蒸发、降水或灌溉入渗影响和潜水位埋深变化相关。不同聚型剖面形成的水动力特征各不相同：表聚型土壤盐分剖面的水势梯度指向地表,其绝对值远大于1.0 cmH₂O/cm;中聚型土壤盐分剖面上部的水势梯度指向地下水面,剖面下部的水势梯度指向地表;底聚型土壤盐分剖面的水势梯度指向地下水面,水势梯度大于1.0 cmH₂O/cm。表聚型土壤盐分剖面不利于微咸水灌溉农田和作物生长。     

鄂尔多斯盆地北部风积沙覆基岩型包气带结构的生态意义

风积沙覆基岩型包气带结构在鄂尔多斯盆地北部分布面积最广.在其结构及其属性特征分析基础上,重点解析了结构内垂向上土壤水分的富集规律;以沙蒿为例,对喜沙耐旱植被的生长与风积沙厚度、地下水水位埋深间的关系进行了探讨.认识到风积沙覆基岩型包气带结构有利于土壤水富集,是鄂尔多斯盆地北部沙蒿、沙柳等耐旱喜沙植被分布与生长的决定性因素,对维系盆地北部生态系统有重要作用;而地下水位埋深与沙蒿等耐旱植被生长间的关系并不密切.在进行盆地北部地下水资源评价及开发方案制定过程中,应对风积沙覆基岩型包气带的生态意义给予重视.     

Modeling the risk of nitrate leaching and nitrate runoff loss from intensive farmland in the Baiyangdian Basin of the North China Plain

The water movement and soil nitrogen cycle of the Baiyangdian Basin were simulated, and the risk of nitrate leaching and nitrate runoff loss from intensive farmland was assessed by using the distributed hydrological soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) in this study. The model assessment showed that SWAT was able to simulate water and nitrate movement in the region with satisfactory results. The modeling analysis indicated that fertilizer application was the overriding source of soil nitrogen and might result in a large amount of nitrate accumulation in soils; this nitrate might be lost by leaching or runoff driven by water movement. In 2009, nitrate nitrogen leaching represented 19.5 % of the total amount of nitrogen fertilizer application, while nitrate nitrogen runoff represented 1.7 % only. Thus, it showed that the nitrate leaching was the main approach of soil nitrogen movement in farmland because of strong percolation. It also showed a significant variation of nitrate leaching from different soil depths, with the largest amount leached from surface soil layers and the smallest amount leached from lower soil layers. Therefore, it could be further revealed that the nitrate concentration was very low at soil layers lower than the root zone of crops (1.2 m). Validated by groundwater observations, groundwater pollution by nitrate derived from fertilizers was not serious because of the deep groundwater level in the study plain. However, the risk of groundwater pollution would increase significantly if precipitation increased.     

Climate controls on nitrate concentration variability in the Abbotsford-Sumas aquifer,British Columbia,Canada

Understanding the linkage between temporal climate variability and groundwater nitrate concentration variability in monitoring well records is key to interpreting the impacts of changes in land-use practices and assessing groundwater quality trends. This study explores the coupling of climate variability and groundwater nitrate concentration variability in the Abbotsford-Sumas aquifer. Over the period of 1992–2009, the average groundwater nitrate concentration in the aquifer remained fairly steady at approximately 15 mg/L nitrate-N. Normalized nitrate data for 19 individual monitoring wells were assessed for a range of intrinsic factors including precipitation, depth to water table, depth below water table, and apparent groundwater age. At a broad scale, there is a negative correlation between nitrate concentration and apparent groundwater age. Each dedicated monitoring well shows unique, non-uniform cyclical variability in nitrate concentrations that appears to correspond with seasonal (1 year) cycles in precipitation as well as longer-period cycles (~5 years), possibly due to ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) or the Pacific North American (PNA) pattern. These precipitation cycles appear to influence nitrate concentrations by approximately ±30 % of the critical concentration (10 mg/L NO₃–N). Not all wells show direct correlation due to many complex local-scale factors that influence nitrate leaching including spatially and temporally variable nutrient management practices and soil/crop nitrogen dynamics (anthropogenic and agronomic factors).     

Arsenic Distribution Pattern in Different Sources of Drinking Water and their Geological Background in Guanzhong Basin,Shaanxi, China

To study arsenic(As) content and distribution patterns as well as the genesis of different kinds of water, especially the different sources of drinking water in Guanzhong Basin, Shaanxi province, China, 139 water samples were collected at 62 sampling points from wells of different depths, from hot springs, and rivers. The As content of these samples was measured by the intermittent flowhydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry method(HG-AFS). The As concentrations in the drinking water in Guanzhong Basin vary greatly(0.00–68.08 μg/L), and the As concentration of groundwater in southern Guanzhong Basin is different from that in the northern Guanzhong Basin. Even within the same location in southern Guanzhong Basin, the As concentrations at different depths vary greatly. As concentration of groundwater from the shallow wells(50 m deep, 0.56–3.87 μg/L) is much lower than from deep wells(110–360 m deep, 19.34–62.91 μg/L), whereas As concentration in water of any depth in northern Guanzhong Basin is 10 μg/L. Southern Guanzhong Basin is a newly discovered high-As groundwater area in China. The high-As groundwater is mainly distributed in areas between the Qinling Mountains and Weihe River; it has only been found at depths ranging from 110 to 360 m in confined aquifers, which store water in the Lishi and Wucheng Loess(Lower and Middle Pleistocene) in the southern Guanzhong Basin. As concentration of hot spring water is 6.47–11.94 μg/L; that of geothermal water between 1000 and 1500 m deep is 43.68–68.08 μg/L. The high-As well water at depths from 110 to 360 m in southern Guanzhong Basin has a very low fluorine(F) value, which is generally 0.10 mg/L. Otherwise, the hot springs of Lintong and Tangyu and the geothermal water in southern Guanzhong Basin have very high F values(8.07–14.96 mg/L). The results indicate that highAs groundwater in depths from 110 to 360 m is unlikely to have a direct relationship with the geothermal water in the same area. As concentration of all reservoirs and rivers(both contaminated and uncontaminated) in the Guanzhong Basin is 10 μg/L. This shows that pollution in the surface water is not the source of the high-As in the southern Guanzhong Basin. The partition boundaries of the high- and low-As groundwater area corresponds to the partition boundaries of the tectonic units in the Guanzhong Basin. This probably indicates that the high-As groundwater areas can be correlated to their geological underpinning and structural framework. In southern Guanzhong Basin, the main sources of drinking water for villages and small towns today are wells between 110–360 m deep. All of their As contents exceed the limit of the Chinese National Standard and the International Standard(10 μg/L) and so local residents should use other sources of clean water that are 50 m deep, instead of deep groundwater(110 to 360 m) for their drinking water supply.     

水势理论在四水转化研究中应用时代特征与趋势:纪念ZFP方法引进我国30周年

20世纪80年代零通量面方法在我国应用中解决了"四水"转化研究中参数不确定性带来的问题,发现在降水入渗补给地下水过程中土壤总水势梯度大于1.0cm H2O/cm,且逐渐降低,流入、流出被监测土层的水量相等时土壤总水势梯度趋近于1.0cm H2O/cm。20世纪90年代,利用土壤水势与含水量之间量化关系,指导了农业节水灌溉,提出在灌溉过程中土壤水势梯度等于1.0cm H2O/cm的时间持续愈长,表明过剩灌溉而浪费的水量愈多的认识。进入21世纪以来,水势理论较广泛地用来解决土壤水盐分运移数值模拟与入渗模型中水文地质参数问题和降水入渗土壤水势运移微观机理研究,并发现表聚型、中聚型和底聚型土壤盐分剖面的水动力学特征。通过土壤水动力场调控改变土壤水盐(养分或污染物)运移是未来重要研究方向。     

肥城矿区地下水资源分析研究

为正确认识和解决地下水资源开发利用中存在的问题,通过检测地下水水动力条件和水化学条件的变化,对肥城矿区地下水资源现状进行了科学分析。研究认为:肥城盆地大气降水量的大小将直接影响来年地下水位的高低;四灰和五灰岩溶水中的氟离子含量普遍较高;第四系孔隙水普遍遭受了氮污染,其硝酸盐含量较高,从而使奥陶系含水层中也含有较高的硝酸盐组分;地表水及矿坑水硬度、矿化度都超标,同时存在大量硫酸根;矿井水经沉淀去除悬浮物后,可以达到污水综合排放、景观用水及煤矿井下防尘用水标准。另外,聚类分析和因子分析表明,五灰水与奥灰水普遍存在密切的水力联系。      

Visual Modflow在石家庄市地下水硝酸盐污染模拟中的应用

利用Visual Modflow软件建立了石家庄市长达42 a的二维潜水水流模型和硝酸盐运移模型.收集整理大量地下水监测报告和研究报告提供的数据用于模型的建立,详细的地下水位和硝酸盐浓度监测数据以及不同时期的等水位线图用于模型校正.敏感度分析显示面状硝酸盐补给浓度是引起地下水NO3-浓度变化最敏感因子.利用校正的模型分3种管理方案预测了未来30 a内地下水硝酸盐浓度的变化.拟合、验证和预测结果显示该模型可作为石家庄市地下水管理的有效工具.     

Sources and behavior of arsenic and trace elements in groundwater and surface water in the Poopó Lake Basin,Bolivian Altiplano

Water management in semiarid and arid catchments such as the Poopó Lake Basin requires improved understanding of the complex behavior of the various contaminants, which affect the drinking water quality and considered as crucial for sustainable development of the region. Mechanisms of arsenic (As) release in the surface and groundwater were studied. Hydrochemical data for surface water (4 samples) and groundwater (28 samples) were collected in a small watershed in the Poopó catchment at the highland of the Bolivian Andes (Altiplano). All of them show high electrical conductivity values and moderately oxidizing conditions. The surface water contains high concentration of sulfate and the trace elements As, Zn and Pb in the zone affected by acid mine drainage. There is a large variability of the concentration of As and of the trace elements in the groundwater in the five different regions within the Poopó catchment. The metal concentrations sensitive to changes of redox state and results of speciation modeling suggest that As (V) is a predominant aqueous species, which conforms to the prevailing oxidizing conditions in the shallow groundwater environment. Two generalized trends for As distribution were identified in groundwater: (a) high concentrations are found in the arid zone (100–250 μg/L) in the southern (region III) and in the northwestern (region V) regions, and (b) low concentrations (<50 μg/L) are found in the remaining part of the basin (region I, II and IV). However, the spatial distribution within these regions needs to be investigated further. A conclusion from the present study is that there are multiple sources of As as well as other trace elements (such as Cd, Mn and Zn) in the Poopó Lake Basin. Among the sources and the processes which led to the mobility of As and other trace metals in the region are: (a) weathering of sulfide minerals, (b) oxidation of pyrite and/or arsenopyrite in mineralized areas and (c) desorption from hydrous ferric oxide (HFO) surfaces. In non-mining areas, volcanic ash is suggested to be a significant source of As.     

Recharge and contamination sources of shallow and deep groundwater of pleistocene aquifer in El-Sadat industrial city: isotope and hydrochemical approaches

Hydrochemical and isotopic researches were conducted in El-Sadat City groundwater system to identify groundwater alteration, recharge, residence time and extent of pollution. The groundwater salinity gradually increases as the groundwater moves from northeastern to southwestern parts of the city. Groundwater generally shows mineralization decreasing with depth, indicating that the possibility of recent water penetration far below the surface is limited. Shallow groundwater has an elevated level of nitrate, which is attributed to anthropogenic sources due to intensive agricultural activity. The limit of high nitrate water may mark the maximum penetration of groundwater from the surface, which is found in depths <100 m. The northeastern and southwestern industrial areas are highly contaminated by some heavy metals, which may originate from some local industrial effluents. The sewage oxidation ponds seem to show no effect on groundwater; hence, these ponds are not a point source for these heavy metals. Dissolved ions depict five different hydrochemical facies, and stable isotopes define the recharge mechanisms, the origin of groundwater and the hydraulic confinement of deep groundwater. The deep groundwater is untritiated and has long residence times (in the order of thousands of years). Three different hydrochemical groups have been recognized and mapped in El-Sadat City, based on the chemical and isotopic information of the groundwater. These groups have different levels of contamination. The deep groundwater samples are significantly less impacted by surface activities and it appears that these important water resources have very low recharge rates and would, therefore, be severely impacted by overabstraction. The extensive exploitation of groundwater for drinking water supply would shortly be reflected by a gradual decline of the groundwater table in El-Sadat City. Amelioration of groundwater quality requires further management strategies and efforts in the forthcoming years.     

盆地地下水流系统形成与影响因素分析

目前区域（盆地）地下水流系统模拟研究中,常用的定水头与通量两种上边界条件刻画方法与实际条件存在差距。通过对比两种方法的差异和各自适用条件,采用解析法讨论地下水位的形成控制机制,提出了改进后的变通量上边界数值模型,并以鄂尔多斯盆地北部白垩系地下水流系统为例分析了盆地地下水流系统的形成与影响因素。研究表明,鄂尔多斯盆地北部白垩系水流系统地下水位受地形、补给条件和渗透系数三者共同控制,同时特有的气候、地形和岩性组合通过控制地下水位影响地下水流系统的发育演化。采用变通量上边界法探讨上边界条件改变对盆地水流系统的影响,对深刻认识区域地下水流系统形成演化机制,揭示地下水系统与上边界气候变化、植被生态变化之间的相互作用关系具有一定优势。     

Nitrate source and fate at the catchment scale of the Vibrata River and aquifer (central Italy): an analysis by integrating component approaches and nitrogen isotopes

The aim of this study is to apply an integrated approach to determine nitrate sources and fate in the alluvial aquifer of the River Vibrata (Abruzzi, central Italy) by coupling the Isotope and the Component approaches. Collected data include concentration and nitrogen isotope composition of groundwater samples from the alluvial aquifer and nitrogen loads arising from agricultural and non-agricultural sources. The adopted methodology identified synthetic fertilizers as main sources of nitrate in the Vibrata alluvial aquifer. At the catchment scale, two different zones have been identified: the Upper Valley, where infiltration to groundwater is dominant and nitrogen easily migrates into the aquifer; in this area, nitrate content in groundwater is stable and normally higher than EU requirements. Moreover, streamwaters are fed by groundwater with a nitrate content likely lowered by denitrification processes occurring in the hyporheic zone. In the Lower Valley, runoff processes dominate and the nitrate content in surface waters is higher. Nevertheless, groundwater is locally affected by denitrification that breaks down the nitrate content, which often reaches values consistent with law limits.     

旱区湿地周边盐渍化农田生态水位阈值与“水位-水量”双控技术

西北旱区湿地周边农田易盐渍化,合理实时控制和降低地下水水位是实现湿地保护及其周边农田盐渍化防控“双赢”的有效途径。选取西北石羊河流域邓马营湖湿地与农田之间过渡带为示范研究区,通过分析地下水埋深变化特征及其与表层土壤盐分的协同关系,确定生态水位阈值,并基于该阈值研发了由虹吸辐射井群为支撑的地下水“水位-水量”智能双控技术,其关键点是:采用一井虹吸联通多个辐射井,用于增大弱透水层区单井涌水量,实现水位面状控制;利用电系统、信号系统和控制器集成智能控制子系统,实现地下水水位和水量的实时控制。该技术示范应用结果表明:随地下水埋深增大,农田盐渍化风险和湿地植被芦苇覆盖率均降低,农田盐渍化防控和湿地保护的地下水埋深阈值为1.9～3.0 m;每年7—8月的潜水蒸发阶段是表层土壤主要积盐时段,期间智能双控系统可将地下水埋深调控在水位阈限范围;该双控作用不仅能够控降灌溉引起的表层土壤电导率的增大幅度,而且还能有效降低表层土壤的积盐速率;相对微咸水,淡水灌溉条件下智能双控技术的淋盐和控盐效果更明显。因此,这项技术能够实现地下水水位精准调控,对旱区湿地保护及其周边农田盐渍化防控具有重要的现实意义。     

Evolution of the groundwater system under the impacts of human activities in middle reaches of Heihe River Basin (Northwest China) from 1985 to 2013

Investigation of the evolution of the groundwater system and its mechanisms is critical to the sustainable management of water in river basins. Temporal and spatial distributions and characteristics of groundwater have undergone a tremendous change with the intensity of human activities in the middle reaches of the Heihe River Basin (HRB), the second largest arid inland river basin in northwestern China. Based on groundwater observation data, hydrogeological data, meteorological data and irrigation statistical data, combined with geostatistical analyses and groundwater storage estimation, the basin-scaled evolution of the groundwater levels and storage (from 1985 to 2013) were investigated. The results showed that the unbalanced allocation of water sources and expanded cropland by policy-based human activities resulted in the over-abstraction of groundwater, which induced a general decrease in the water table and groundwater storage. The groundwater level has generally fallen from 4.92 to 11.49 m from 1985 to 2013, especially in the upper and middle parts of the alluvial fan (zone I), and reached a maximum depth of 17.41 m. The total groundwater storage decreased by 177.52?×?10⁸ m³; zone I accounted for about 94.7 % of the total decrease. The groundwater balance was disrupted and the groundwater system was in a severe negative balance; it was noted that the groundwater/surface-water interaction was also deeply affected. It is essential to develop a rational plan for integration and management of surface water and groundwater resources in the HRB.