An engineering geological appraisal of the sandstones of the Clarens Formation,Lesotho, in relation to tunnelling

Summary The Delivery Tunnel South forms part of a system of tunnels for conveying water from Lesotho to South Africa. The tunnel was excavated primarily by tunnel boring machine in the sandstones of the Clarens Formation. These sandstones are uniformly graded and fine grained with quartz being the most abundant mineral. They are mostly of aeolian origin. Their unconfined compressive strength varies appreciably, from moderately strong to extremely strong. The boreability of the sandstones was investigated by the Norwegian Institute of Technology tests and the total hardness. These tests showed that these sandstones would be relatively easy to bore, although moderately abrasive. The prediction proved correct. In fact, excavation of the tunnel was completed 20 months ahead of schedule, the rock conditions being better than expected. The long-term durability of these sandstones was investigated to establish criteria for concrete lining of the tunnel. A series of tests were undertaken to evaluate the durability. These included a number of soaking tests using different fluid media, wet and dry testing, erosion tests and brushing tests. This testing programme suggested that concrete lining of the intact sandstone was probably only required where the strength of the sandstone was less than 20 MPa and that therefore only a small percentage of the tunnel need be lined.     

Predicting Overbreak from Blast Vibration Monitoring in a Lake Tap Tunnel - A Success Story

Tunnels are required to be constructed for meeting different human needs such as power generation, transportation, underground storage, sewage etc. The predominant method of excavation, world over, is drilling and blasting owing to its capability to meet changing geo-technical conditions. Irrespective of the purpose for which the tunnels are driven, all are plagued by overbreak problems. Tunnels driven for water conveyance in hydroelectric power projects, in particular, need to be excavated with minimum overbreak to minimise cost of permanent concrete lining. Thus, predicting overbreak assumes significant importance to design site-specific blasts for minimizing rock damage. This paper presents a brief review of existing PPV (Peak Particle Velocity) based blast-induced rock damage estimation criteria and attempts to outline the ground vibration threshold levels for overbreak/rock damage in a tunnel driven through compact basalt. Rock damage manifested as overbreak is measured and correlated with the possible threshold levels of PPV. Also, the PPV levels for crack initiation and widening are proposed. The case pertains to a lake tap horizontal tunnel of Koyna Hydro-electric Power Project, India which is a water feeder tunnel for a fully underground hydroelectric power project. The tunnel was driven under a shallow rock cover of average depth ranging from 20 to 25m beneath a fully charged water body. The parting rock is mainly compact basalt. Blasting was carried out in two rounds in a controlled manner, i.e., by limiting the maximum charge per delay based on ground vibration monitoring. Ground vibration generated with free face (in second round) has been modeled and a new ground vibration propagation equation is proposed for tunnel blasting including the effect of an extra free face. The threshold limits of PPV for different degrees of overbreak/rock damage are proposed from extrapolated vibration predictor equation. The actual overbreak in the tunnel, measured using a Planimeter, varied from 2.45 per cent to 17.75 per cent of the finished tunnel area. The predicted overbreak from extrapolated PPV measurements is compared against the measured overbreak to validate the proposed blast-induced rock damage (BIRD) assessment model. The PPV level for overbreak was found to exceed 2050 mm/s in compact basalt. A linear relationship between the overbreak and maximum charge per delay is also established to design a tunnel blast in similar formations.     

盾构机穿越江河浅覆土层最小埋深的研究

盾构机穿越江、海、湖泊等浅覆土层时,由于隧道衬砌所受浮力作用,上部覆土厚度极为重要。针对传统上覆土层厚度计算方法中没有考虑土体自身剪切强度对抗浮作用发挥的问题,提出了一个新的覆土厚度计算方法,并通过算例对所提的计算方法与简化计算方法进行对比分析。说明了新的计算方法比传统计算方法更符合实际。最后,通过有限元数值计算浅覆土层的应力、应变情况,进一步验证了该计算方法的合理性。     

图像处理技术在隧洞超欠挖评价中的应用

图像处理技术在隧洞超欠挖评价中的应用是该技术在地质及岩土工程领域的新尝试。通过对野外摄取的隧洞图像进行一系列的处理得到隧洞的基本形状,然后与隧洞的设计形状对比分析,即可得到隧洞在该断面上的超欠挖方量,然后对其他断面采用同样的技术就可评价某一段或整个隧洞的超欠挖数量,这样就从定量的角度解决了以往工程中难以解决的超欠挖评价问题,为工程超欠挖的判断与决策提供合理依据。最后通过一实例对某一隧洞的超欠挖方量进行评价。     

隧道衬砌背后空洞引起塌方的分析与处理

理论和实践都证实了,隧道衬砌背后存在空洞时,易引起隧道塌方等灾害。因此,在隧道施工过程中,如遇到超挖的情况,一定要把衬砌背后的超挖部分填实,并能根据动态监控量测,进行规范施工,以避免类似的塌方事故。     

厦门翔安海底隧道不良地质段施工风险识别与应对

修建海底隧道技术难度高、施工风险大,其中不良地质段是施工高风险地段。厦门翔安海底隧道是中国大陆地区第一条海底隧道,长6.05 km,最深处位于海平面下约70 m,采用设置服务隧道的3孔隧道方式,设双向6车道,钻爆法施工。隧道场区以花岗岩地层为主,主要不良地质段包括两端陆域及浅滩全强风化地段和海域多处风化深槽,其施工期风险管理尤为重要。应用风险评估与分析理论,探讨了海底隧道施工风险发生机制及风险水平评估方法。针对厦门翔安隧道施工图设计阶段的地质勘测、土建结构设计和拟采用的施工方法,对不良地质段施工期的典型地质风险和施工风险进行识别与风险水平评估,研究了降低风险的相应对策,以便在施工中对风险进行管理,采取必要措施保障施工安全与质量。     

西安地铁正交地裂缝隧道的模型试验研究

以西安地铁二号线穿越地裂缝的区间隧道为对象,通过几何相似比尺50:1的物理模型试验,开展了地裂缝活动条件下地铁隧道骑缝（变形缝与地裂缝一致）正交穿越地裂缝时衬砌结构与围岩相互作用机制的试验研究。结果表明,在地裂缝发生各级错动位移条件下,不同围岩应力场的围岩土压力、衬砌结构应力及其不均匀沉降位移变化规律相似;上下盘内的衬砌结构之间具有明显的错断位移,下盘内衬砌结构的沉降量越小,上盘内衬砌结构的沉降量越大,均呈渐变趋势;上盘内衬砌结构应力、围岩土压力随地裂缝错动位移的增加而减小,下盘衬砌结构应力和围岩土压力随地裂缝错动位移的增加而增大,围岩土压力和衬砌结构应力的增量峰值均发生在地裂缝附近。模型试验研究研究结果对于分析地裂缝活动区间地铁隧道工程的运营及维护具有重要的理论与实际意义。     

金丽温高速公路连拱隧道超挖预测及原因分析

通过对金丽温高速公路连拱隧道的地质特征进行现场调查,经分析得出隧道区岩体结构面的特征参数,利用分析出的结构面特征参数值,结合隧道超挖预测中的神经网络理论及结构面网络模拟理论,对连拱隧道的超挖情况进行预测。从分析结果看,超挖问题在连拱隧道的施工过程中不可避免,其产生部位主要集中在中导洞与隧道的连接部位,通过预测得出的结果与现场开挖情况进行对比分析说明,隧道的超挖预测理论预测结果与实际有较好的一致性,文中最后针对隧道的特点,分析了产生超挖的基本原因,为确保隧道开挖过程中减少超挖提供依据。     

Excavation Problem in Mixed Ground Conditions at the Kabatas–Mecidiyekoy Metro (Istanbul) Tunnels

Mechanized tunnelling is a well-established tunnel construction method which allows constructing tunnels in various conditions including mixed ground conditions as well as tunnels in vulnerable urban areas. The selection of the excavator suitable for the geological structure is important in terms of realizing an efficient tunnel excavation. Tunnel excavation studies of Istanbul Kabatas–Mecidiyeköy Metro tunnels are implemented as a double tube. Geology in this section is composed of sandstone, siltstone, mudstone interbedded or as separate units along with dyke intrusions. Calcareous clay, clayey limestone, clayey sand are also rarely observed. Between the Kabatas–Mecidiyekoy tunnels includes two types of mechanical excavation methods namely tunnel boring machine (TBM) and new Austrian tunnelling method (NATM). Main purpose of this study is mixed ground and their impacts on mechanized tunnelling. At the end, some issues have been presented which seems to be important for the success of TBM and NATM in the mixed grounds. As the tunnel excavation studies continued, the problem of collapse on the ground surface of Barbaros Boulevard in Besiktas station increased the importance of tunnel excavation under mixed ground conditions.     

Sheared shale response to deep TBM excavation

Phien-wej, N. and Cording, E.J., 1991. Sheared shale response to deep TBM excavation. Eng. Geol., 30: 371–391.

Ravelling and squeezing of sheared shale of Stillwater Tunnel caused severe problems in tunneling with a tunnel boring machine (TBM) that led to termination of the contract. The tunnel was finally holed through with two TBM's specially designed for squeezing ground. Although the shale mass in all geological conditions exhibited time-dependent response, significant squeezing was confined to sheared shale with large amounts of clay gouge infill, wherein creep of the clay gouge was the prime mechanism controlling the ground response. However, when the tunnel face was advanced at a slow rate, the observed ground squeezing in the early period was largely induced by the effect of stress change from face advance, not the creep. Ground ravelling was very significant in sheared shale due to the high degree of fissuring and fracturing of this thinly bedded shale. Failure of the first TBM resulted mainly from the incompatibility of the shield design with the sheared shale. The shield was too long and stiff and had variable diameters. Extensive observation and instrumentation programs of the project provided valuable information on rapid mechanized tunneling in heavy ground.     

水平层状复合岩体变形破坏特征的围压效应研究

为研究不同围压下深部复合地层岩体变形和破坏特征,结合地质赋存条件制作了类层状复合岩石试样,通过开展不同围压下的三轴压缩试验,研究了围压对水平层状复合岩体变形破坏特征的影响。试验结果表明：随着围压的不断增加,峰后偏应力-应变曲线的降低速率逐渐变缓,应变软化程度逐渐减弱;随着围压的增大,水平层状复合岩石的破坏形态呈现出明显差异,整体上破坏形态逐渐由脆性破坏向延性破坏过渡;在一定围压状态下,围压对软岩膨胀变形的约束效果相对硬岩较弱,导致水平层状复合岩石试样的软、硬分层之间的膨胀变形不协调,在层间黏结力作用下,软、硬分层之间发生相对错动现象。该研究成果对于施工单位预防深部复合地层隧道掘进机（TBM）工程灾害具有一定的指导意义。     

基于可拓理论的围岩稳定分类方法的研究

在双护盾TBM（tunnel boring machine）的隧洞施工中,将可拓理论与洞室围岩稳定评价相结合。基于碴料和掘进参数的地质编录所提供的地质信息,选取了能够反映围岩稳定综合特性的评价指标,确定围岩稳定类型和预测前方岩体情 况。在物元理论、可拓集合论和关联函数运算的基础上,建立了隧洞围岩稳定分类的可拓评价方法,其中引进了隶属度的概念和一种定量的指标权重的确定方法,并在山西引黄工程的双护盾TBM隧洞施工中用此分类方法对某两段围岩进行了稳定分 类,得到的稳定分类结果与实际情况吻合。     

A Completely 3D Model for the Simulation of Mechanized Tunnel Excavation

For long deep tunnels as currently under construction through the Alps, mechanized excavation using tunnel boring machines (TBMs) contributes significantly to savings in construction time and costs. Questions are, however, posed due to the severe ground conditions which are in cases anticipated or encountered along the main tunnel alignment. A major geological hazard is the squeezing of weak rocks, but also brittle failure can represent a significant problem. For the design of mechanized tunnelling in such conditions, the complex interaction between the rock mass, the tunnel machine, its system components, and the tunnel support need to be analysed in detail and this can be carried out by three-dimensional (3D) models including all these components. However, the state-of-the-art shows that very few fully 3D models for mechanical deep tunnel excavation in rock have been developed so far. A completely three-dimensional simulator of mechanised tunnel excavation is presented in this paper. The TBM of reference is a technologically advanced double shield TBM designed to cope with both conditions. Design analyses with reference to spalling hazard along the Brenner and squeezing along the Lyon–Turin Base Tunnel are discussed.     

非对称基坑开挖对下卧地铁隧道影响的离心试验

非对称基坑开挖引起的卸载－再加载作用常常对下方已建地铁隧道产生不利影响。为明确基坑施工过程对既有隧道的扰动作用,运用土工离心试验系统开展离心模型试验,试验中考虑非对称基坑开挖的卸载－再加载过程,以及基坑与隧道的相对位置,并结合卸载－再加载过程的桩-土-隧道荷载传递机制,分析了不同开挖步和荷载施加对既有隧道位移和受力的影响。结果表明：基坑开挖引起了明显的地层损失,非对称卸载作用导致隧道发生上浮和偏移,基坑初次开挖对隧道的扰动较小,随开挖深度增加,扰动作用逐渐加强;距离基坑中心线近的左线隧道扰动作用更加明显,离基坑越远,基坑卸载－再加载扰动作用越不明显;荷载施加后,由于桩基荷载传递作用和隧道加筋阻拦作用,使得隧道衬砌应力重分布;位于两桩之间的断面扰动较明显,而位于桩侧附近的断面扰动较小,说明群桩效应对隧道扰动更明显。     

隧道结构系统可靠度研究

在结构系统可靠度研究的基础上,根据隧道结构的特点,应用概率理论及工程结构系统可靠度分析方法,对整个隧道结构系统可靠度进行了探讨。隧道结构系统可靠度研究包括衬砌断面可靠度、在各种不同围岩压力作用下衬砌断面可靠度、同种围岩地段衬砌可靠度以及整座隧道可靠度的研究。整座隧道可看作由两端洞门和洞内不同围岩地段隧道衬砌所组成的串联系统,任一围岩地段衬砌和任一洞门结构的破损,都认为该隧道破损,则运用“概率网络估算技术”（又称PNET法）可求得整座隧道系统的失效概率与可靠指标。通过实例计算得到,整座隧道系统的总体可靠指标比所有单段结构的可靠指标都要低。     

穿越黏滑断层分段接头隧道模型试验研究

数次大地震震害调查表明,隧道穿越断层处是受地震破坏较为严重的区域。为此,基于地震动能量的传播与释放特征,建立了一种穿越断层隧道结构抗减震的设计理念,并提出了一种穿越断层隧道节段接头形式。以跨断层龙溪隧道为依托,采用振动台模型试验研究了单一错动方式与断层错动-震动综合加载方式下带有接头的衬砌结构响应。研究结果证明：强震作用下,地震波对穿越断层隧道的影响是不可忽略的,断层错动-震动综合加载方式是合理的;新型接头能够自身适应性变形协调减轻隧道结构震害,节段间接头的设置改变了隧道的变形形态,提高隧道整体抗震能力;同时减小了衬砌的环向破坏,消弱了节段间地震力的传递,实现了衬砌震害的局部化。由于接头的设置,上盘隧道结构震害集中在距断层1.8倍洞径的范围内,下盘处隧道衬砌震害集中在距断层1.2倍洞径范围内;上盘的衬砌震害主要是由错动-震动联合作用造成的,而下盘衬砌震害主要受地震动的影响。     

Tunnel blasting techniques in difficult ground conditions

Summary The quality of tunnelling can be improved by proper blast design which takes into account the rock mass conditions. The effects of different rock mass properties on tunnel blast performance need to be assessed. The strength of the formation and joint orientation critically affected fragmentation and overbreak in a model study of blasting. Similar effects were noted in situ when the performance of a blast pattern in different rock mass conditions in the Tandsi inclines (Bihar, India) were analysed. Accordingly, the on-going blast pattern was modified for the poor ground conditions prevailing in the rest of the inclines. Improved fragmentation and smooth profile were obtained as a result; the rate of drivage improved considerably and the cost of excavation was reduced. Based on the observations in the model studies and the investigations at Tandsi, some guidelines for optimum blast design in difficult ground conditions are suggested.     

隧道斜交穿越地裂缝的模型试验研究

西安地区由北向南间隔分布有十多条近东西走向的地裂缝,建设中的多条地铁线路与地裂缝呈斜交状态。为了揭示地铁隧道斜交穿越地裂缝时受地裂缝活动而产生的力学性状变化,采用50:1几何相似比尺的物理模型试验仪,在合理模拟围岩地层、衬砌结构、应力条件、地裂缝与洞轴线交角及其错动位移基础上,开展了斜交地裂缝活动条件下隧道衬砌结构与围岩相互作用的物理模型试验研究,并与正交地裂缝活动下的测试结果进行了对比分析。表明斜交地裂缝活动对地铁隧道的影响范围更大,各变形缝均有明显的沉降差发展;邻近斜交地裂缝的衬砌结构易处于“悬臂梁”受力状态,衬砌结构不均匀沉降使其产生旋转位移,围岩土压力变化使衬砌结构内力产生显著变化;随着地裂缝错动位移的发展,上盘内拱顶和下盘拱顶、拱底出现围岩作用的加强,而上盘拱底出现围岩作用的松弛。与隧道正交穿越地裂缝的情况比较,斜交穿越地裂缝时围岩土压力和衬砌结构内力变化更大,易出现拉裂破坏。     

What is the contribution of time-dependent deformation in tunnel convergence?

Tunnel excavation produces stress changes to the ground and strain to the support lining, leading to the closure (convergence) or instability of the excavated area. Convergence recorded after section excavation is assigned to: (i) strain resulting from the progressive tunnel front advance (face advance effect) and (ii) the time-dependent properties of the soil material (ground creep effect). In the present study, based on the geodetic monitoring records of two recent road tunnels in Greece, a simple methodology to estimate the contribution of each of the two effects is presented. Our analysis reveals that at least half of the total deformation of the examined tunnel sections is due to ground creep, indicating that the major portion of tunnel deformation is due to the time-dependent properties of the ground; a result supported by previous studies from other tunnels as well.