Climate finance governance in hazard prone riverine islands in Bangladesh: pathway for promoting climate resilience

Bangladesh is one of the topmost climate vulnerable countries in the world where the riverine island (char) dwellers are the most victims of climate change. Climate finance is perceived as the key instruments to address the issues related to climate change impacts and improve the livelihood resilience of the rural people. This article examines the role of climate finance governance at the vulnerable hazard-prone chars in Bangladesh. Climate finance adaptation governance has been assessed through measuring the climate service intervention, behavioral changes and impacts at the local level. The study reveals that the mechanism of climate finance in Bangladesh is good enough, but implementation is not satisfactory. It also observed that there is a lack of participatory governance for disaster management, and there is no direct contribution of climate finance governance in the village level which causes to fail the existing implementation strategy. The study suggests that a riverine island-based long-term development program should be implemented through ensuring effective monitoring system so that climate finance governance can contribute a lot and improve the food security and livelihood resilience of char dwellers.

     

Participatory forestry as a strategy for reforestation in Bangladesh

Deforestation has been a serious ecological problem in Bangladesh for the past four decades. Illegal logging, demand for fuelwood and farmland encroachment are the principal causes of dwindling biomass resource. About 17.8% of the total area of the country are under forest cover (BBS 1993), but less than half of that area are under real tree formations. It is estimated that Bangladesh loses its forest lands by about 3.3% every year (World Bank 1994). This paper attempts to present a review of a newer strategy to meet this challenge; a strategy, not merely of halting deforestation, but of reforestation on a national scale and through people's participation in the process.In response to the crisis in the forestry sector, traditional government forest management programs have been replaced by participatory forestry in recent years as the principal strategy for reforestation. This change in strategy has two goals (1) encourage new plantations, and (2) generate income and create jobs for the rural poor. Participatory forestry is a benefit sharing scheme in which the landless and the marginal farmers are employed in tree plantation work.     

Impacts of primary deforestation upon limestone slopes in northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia

Effects of deforestation upon slopes in limestones and in volcanic rocks in the Benson River valley, northern Vancouver Island, have been investigated quantitatively. Postlogging soil erosion and vegetal regeneration success were assessed by measuring soil depth, percent bare rock and moss cover, and the numbers and diversity of trees, shrubs, and plants on 25 sampling sites, each containing ten measuring quadrats selected at random. Sixteen sites were on the Quatsino Formation, a well-karstified limestone, and nine on the Karmutsen Formation of basaltic lavas. Eight sites were of virgin forest, 16 were logged between 1970 and 1983, and one (on limestone) was logged in 1911. Both bedrock types were significantly affected by the cutting. There was greater loss of soil and an increase in bare rock on the limestones. Erosion was increased significantly by burning on the limestones but not on the volcanics. Within-group comparisons on the limestones determined that steeper slopes and harder burned areas suffered the most and are slowest to regenerate. Volume of timber on the 1911 site was 19 percent of that in similar uncut forest sites. It appears that complete recovery on the barren limestone slopes will require at least some centuries.     

A review of socio-economic and nutritional issues of Bihari Camp Dwellers in Bangladesh: a micro study

The living conditions of the Bihari camp dwellers of Bangladesh are an embarrassment to the country's social environment. An investigation was made about the socio-economic condition of the Biharis living in the Khalishpur camp, Khulna. A comparison has been made between the Biharis and equivalent Bengali slum dwellers in Khalishpur. The data were collected from primary sources. A 10% systematic sampling was undertaken to collect a total of 150 Bihari households and through a 20% systematic sampling 150 Bengali households were surveyed by questionnaires. Data analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively indicate that the Biharis are leading an extremely substandard life when food consumption, medical expenditure, schooling, income and employment pattern were considered. The condition as prevalent in the camp has led to a high rate of infectious diseases which is likely to aggrevate creating environmental hazards. The country then may face serious social problems which should be prevented through gearing up the process of repatriation and through encouraging community participation in improving their economic and social environment.The study was sponsored by CONCERN a voluntary Irish Organization in Bangladesh.     

Effects of deforestation and afforestation on climate

Forests cover 29% of the continents. Their importance for mankind is not only due to wood production but also by their manyfold influences on the biosphere. The properties of forest stands influence climate, water balance, air constituents and the dynamic of atmosphere. The welfare functions of forests can be observed in the global as well as in the local or microscale. Anthropogenic measures, as deforestation and air pollution, endanger the forests and by that one of the main pillars of nature on earth.     

Effects of deforestation and afforestation on climate

Forests cover 29% of the continents. Their importance for mankind is not only due to wood production but also by their manyfold influences on the biosphere. The properties of forest stands influence climate, water balance, air constituents and the dynamic of atmosphere. The welfare functions of forests can be observed in the global as well as in the local or microscale. Anthropogenic measures, as deforestation and air pollution, endanger the forests and by that one of the main pillars of nature on earth.     

中国北方森林植被主要表土花粉类型对植被的指示性

中国北方森林植被68个表土花粉样品中,主要花粉类型联合指数(A)、超代表性指数(O)、低代表性指数(U)、R值、植被不存在时花粉百分比最大值(X_a)和平均值(M_a)、植被存在时花粉百分比最大值(X_p)和平均值(M_p)的计算表明:胡桃、青檀、禾本科、菊科、莎草科、皂荚等A值较高,O值及U值均较低,对植被指示明显,为适中代表性类型;云杉、冷杉、栎、鼠李、沙枣、落叶松、榆、杨、黄栌、花椒、木犀科、绣线菊、毛茛科、榛等,尽管A值和O值大于0.5,但X_a远低于M_p,R值小于1,对植被指示意义较明显,属低代表性类型;桦、松、蒿、藜科等,A值适中,O值和R值较高,U值较低,但X_a,X_p和M_a值较高,属超代表性类型,对植被有一定的指示意义;其他花粉类型对植被指示性不明显或需进一步研究。花粉百分比与植物盖度关系研究表明,多数在森林中建群或为优势成分的乔木花粉与母体植物呈显著线性相关关系,森林植被中的伴生乔木、灌木和多数草本花粉与植物盖度无明显的线性相关关系。松花粉30%以上,可能有松林存在;云、冷杉林中云杉、冷杉花粉高于20%,无云杉植物存在时云、冷杉花粉低于5%;落叶松林中落叶松花粉低于20%,落叶松...     

Deforestation in the Buea-Limbe and Bertoua regions in southern Cameroon (1984–2000): modernization,world-systems,and neo-Malthusian outlook

This paper characterizes changes in land use and forest cover in southern Cameroon. In doing so, we use remotely sensed data to define the rates and area of forest loss and cover change in two reference areas over a period of 16 years (from 1984 to 2000)—the Buea-Limbe area in the southwest province and the Bertoua area in the east province. We relate socio-economic data of these study areas with results from the empirical spatial analysis to explain causes of deforestation. A second set of explanations, which we call the theoretical perspective, attributes deforestation in southern Cameroon to the intricacies of modernization, world-systems, and neo-Malthusian theories.     

Long term changes in forest cover and land use of Similipal Biosphere Reserve of India using satellite remote sensing data

The spatial changes in forest cover of Similipal biosphere reserve, Odisha, India over eight decades (1930–2012) has been quantified by using multi-temporal data from different sources. Over the period, the forest cover reduced by 970.8 km² (23.6% of the total forest), and most significantly during the period, 1930–1975. Human-induced activities like conversion of forest land for agriculture, construction of dams and mining activities have been identified as major drivers of deforestation. Spatial analysis indicates that 399 grids (1 grid = 1 × 1 km) have undergone large-scale changes in forest cover (>75 ha) during 1930–1975, while only 3 grids have shown >75 ha loss during 1975–1990. Annual net rate of deforestation was 0.58 during 1930–1975, which has been reduced substantially during 1975–1990 (0.04). Annual gross rate of deforestation in 2006–2012 is indeed low (0.01) as compared to the national and global average. This study highlights the impact and effectiveness of conservation practices in minimizing the rate of deforestation and protecting the Similipal Biosphere Reserve.     

Damage and management of cyclone Sidr-affected homestead tree plantations: a case study from Patuakhali, Bangladesh

Geographically, Bangladesh is considered to be one of the most cyclone-prone areas in the world. The super cyclone Sidr in 2007 was one of the most devastating disasters to have ever occurred in Bangladesh, having wind speeds of 223?km/h with a tidal surge of 6.1?C7.6?m high. In order to draw a pre- and post-Sidr damage and management scenario, a survey was conducted at Dumki upazila, Patuakhali district in Bangladesh with a pretested questionnaire. Primary data were collected through a questionnaire, while secondary data were collected from pertinent offices as well as academic journals. The major focus of this study was to assess the state of pre-Sidr tree plantations (woody and fruit trees), the devastation caused by Sidr on these tree plantations, and post-Sidr recovery and further sustainable management initiatives to counteract a possible future neo-Sidr. The post-Sidr study showed that about 16.84 million woody and fruit trees were uprooted by Sidr. A total of 3,120 rain tree (Samanea saman L.), 7,548 mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni L.), 1,444 royal siris (Albizzia richardiana L.), 702 white siris (Albizzia procera L.), 1,214 mango (Mangifera indica L.), 1,092 coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), 1,380 jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus L.), and 7,640 betel nut (Areca catechu L.) trees were sampled among which 922, 1,662, 382, 210, 106, 38, 362, and 1,652 trees, respectively, were markedly damaged by Sidr. Sexually propagated woody trees with a damaged taproot were vulnerable to heavy wind during the cyclone. Fruit trees were more resistant to the cyclone than other types of trees, and the lack of proper tree training and pruning was one of the principal causes of the severe damage to woody trees. Hence, plantations of woody tree saplings with damaged taproots are strongly discouraged. However, proper training and pruning of homestead trees together with plantation of fruit trees rather than woody trees is suggested as a possible effective management strategy to protect the homestead ecosystem from devastation by future cyclones in Bangladesh.     

Cyclones and storm surges in Bangladesh: Some mitigative measures

Bangladesh, with its repeated cycle of floods, cyclones, and storm surges, has proved to be one of the most disaster-prone areas of the world. During the years from 1797 to 1991, Bangladesh has been hit by 60 severe cyclones (mostly accompanied by storm surges). This paper gives a brief account of these disasters with particular reference to the wind speed, surge height, loss of life, and damage to crops and properties, etc.In order to protect the coastal areas of Bangladesh from cyclonic storm surges and floods, a major system of embankments was constructed during the 1960s and 1970s, but this is now in need of rehabilitation. The Cyclone Protection Project, which was approved by the World Bank in 1989, would rehabilitate some of the existing embankments, build new embankments, and construct roads. Locally available materials, indigenous technology, and cheap surplus manpower should be used in this project. A variety of fruit trees should be planted along the dikes and roads.To the south-western part of Bangladesh bordering the Bay of Bengal, lies the world's largest single mangrove tract, known as the Sunderban, which covers a total area of 571 500 ha. This mangrove forest is of extreme importance since it provides efficient protection to life and property against cyclones and storm surges. But due to deforestation, the width of the mangrove belt is being rapidly diminished. The author therefore lays emphasis on coastal afforestation.Absolute security against cyclone hazard is probably out of the question, but an effective cyclone warning response can definitely reduce loss of life and damage to property. The author discusses the current conditions for cyclone forecasting and warning in Bangladesh, and then puts forward some proposals for improving the Cyclone Preparedness Programme.     

额尔齐斯河源区森林对春季融雪过程的影响评估

春季积雪融水是额尔齐斯河河源区最重要的水资源. 为探索森林对春季融雪过程的影响, 于2014年融雪期在额尔齐斯河河源区的卡依尔特斯河流域, 选择草地、林中空地和林下三种不同地貌条件, 分别观测积雪消融过程. 结果显示: 积雪消融过程中, 积雪深度和雪水当量的变化并不是同步的; 积雪深度的减小是持续发生的, 是新雪密实化作用的结果; 而雪水当量仅在日均空气温度高于 0 ℃ 时才出现快速的下降. 森林具有显著调节空气温度的功能, 三种类型观测点1.5 m处的日平均空气温度表现为草地>林下>林中空地, 其中, 消融期内草地的平均空气温度(-2.5 ℃)远高于林下(-5.4 ℃)和林中空地(-6.1 ℃); 森林的存在显著减小了空气温度的日较差. 草地、林中空地和林下积雪消融持续期分别为20 d、43 d和35 d, 消融期平均积雪消融速率分别为2.1 mm·d^-1、1.5 mm·d^-1和 1.2 mm·d^-1, 即: 草地>林中空地>林下. 另外, 单棵树对积雪的消融速率有极其重要的影响: 树冠外一定距离内积雪的消融速率约为树冠下积雪消融速率的2倍以上; 但由于树冠超过70%的降雪截留效应, 树冠正下方的积雪消融结束时间仍提前树冠外侧约10 d. 积雪的消融由空气温度和辐射强度共同决定: 当日平均空气温度<0 ℃时, 辐射强度对积雪消融影响较大, 消融过程可由空气温度和辐射强度共同描述; 当温度>0 ℃时, 单独的空气温度可直接反映消融速率的变化. 研究还发现, 该流域内积雪的消融主要发生在每天的14:00-19:00, 该时段内积雪消融量约占全天消融总量的50%以上, 这对流域内积雪洪水预报和水资源利用及管理具有重要的指导意义.     

Floods in megacity environments: vulnerability and coping strategies of slum dwellers in Dhaka/Bangladesh

In many megacities of the global south, the combination of rapid population growth and high pressure on space for housing, results in urban growth taking place in areas particularly prone to natural hazards. Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, is no exception to this rule. Many marginal settlements or slums are located on low-lying land at high risk of flooding. This paper analyzes the vulnerability of slum dwellers in Dhaka and highlights the major factors behind their sensitivity to floods and their ability to adapt to the related changes. The empirical findings presented are based on a questionnaire survey covering 625 households in five slum areas of Dhaka. Our data suggests that social capital plays an important role with regard to the ability of slum dwellers to find ways to live with the floods. Regardless of how strongly people are affected, mutual help and support are dominant features in times of crises. While poorly educated and resourced slum dwellers are highly vulnerable to external shocks, they still show a surprising capacity to cope with natural calamities.     

Settlement relocations in the char-lands of Padma River basin in Ganges delta, Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a unique hydro-geological setting and deltaic floodplain which is jointly formed by the deposition of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna) and Meghna River. The physical characteristics of the geographic location, river morphology and the monsoon climate render Bangladesh highly vulnerable to natural disasters, primarily, floods and cyclones. River flooding has exerted a great impact on the culture and socioeconomic activities. The char people and their settlements in the Padma River channel are under threat due to floods and associated river bank erosion. The excess of water happens during the monsoon season because of widespread flooding that damages char-land settlements, agricultural crops, infrastructure and communication networks. Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza of Char-Janajat is largely affected by annual floods, and as a result the char people are displaced frequently from one place to another within and/or outside the char. The dwellers can return to the native char when new land emerges in the river channel after floods. This study has revealed that the displacement of char settlement takes place in almost every 3–5a at Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza of Char-Janajat. Our findings shed light on the char flood disaster management and social adaptation plan for settlement development of char livelihood in the Padma River basin in the Ganges delta of Bangladesh.     

Patterns of Coping and Adaptation Among Erosion-Induced Displacees in Bangladesh: Implications for Hazard Analysis and Mitigation

The purpose of this research was to identify social, culturaland psychological aspects of riverbank erosion-induced displacement in the flood plainsof Bangladesh. Although considerable research has examined the social and economicimpacts of riverine hazards in Bangladesh, there has been a general neglect of associatedpsychosocial implications. The specific objectives of the study were to: (1) assess hazardawareness in relation to riverbank erosion, (2) determine the magnitude of psychologicaldistress associated with displacement, and (3) identify patterns of psychosocial copingand adaptation common to displaced persons in Bangladesh. Although displacees were foundto have a significantly higher level of distress than non-displacees, this was relatedprimarily to socioeconomic deprivation rather than to displacement per se. The findingsof this study showed that the constant threat of riverbank erosion has contributed to asubstantial disaster subculture in the riverine zones of Bangladesh. The commonly hypothesized factorssuch as loss of land and frequency and duration of displacement were notsignificantly associated with distress levels.The need to integrate into hazard analysis and mitigation studiesa social, cultural and psychological context is recommended. In Bangladesh, the poor copewith hardship and problems by relying on religion, which in turn significantlyinfluences how they perceive and interpret natural calamities. It is argued that the capacityof people to respond to environmental threats is a function of not only the physicalforces which affect them, but of indigenous social and cultural belief systems which influencehow people interpret and organize their activities. Hazard analysis and mitigation wouldbe most effective when it takes into account psychological and socio-cultural aspects ofdisasters, due to the fact that psychological distress impacts the capacity of people toachieve livelihoods, but also important social and psychological processes determine the waypeople perceive and adapt to natural hazards.     

Human injuries caused by Bangladesh’s cyclone sidr: an empirical study

The objectives of this paper are to examine the extent of human injuries caused by Cyclone Sidr, which made landfall in Bangladesh coast on November 15, 2007, and report on the circumstances, type and causes of injuries, along with selected risk factors associated with such injuries. Relevant data was collected through a questionnaire survey administered among the cyclone victims. Semi-structured interviews with key personnel were also conducted to obtain information regarding the circumstances causing injuries and public response to care for the injured. The questionnaire survey data reveals that among the respondent families, 132 persons sustained various types of injuries. Since the respondent families comprised of 1,443 members, the injury rate was 9.15%. All injured victims were treated either onsite or in local hospitals. The most common types of injuries were soft-tissue injuries (cuts, bruises, and scrapes) and fracture/dislocations. The most common causes of injuries for survivors were associated with falling trees. Analysis of risk factors reveals that age is significantly correlated with injuries. Both formal and informal interviews suggest that injured persons and their family members were in general pleased with medical response they received from various sources. Several recommendations have been suggested to reduce future cyclone-related injuries in Bangladesh.     

Ideals and institutions: Systemic reasons for the failure of a social forestry program in south-west Bangladesh

We explore the contradictions between the ideals and principles of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) and the local-level institutional processes encountered in their implementation. In particular, we examine the design, implementation, and outcomes of the Social Forestry Program (SFP) in the south-west coastal region of Bangladesh through case studies of two villages in Khulna District. The SFP was a component of the donor-funded Sundarban Biodiversity Conservation Project (SBCP), intended to improve the livelihoods of poor households and protect the landscape through strip plantations on both sides of the large embankments that surround the farming land in the coastal region. Our findings show the gap between the national and international context in which the SFP was formulated and the realities of the local context in which formal and informal institutions worked to frustrate the achievement of CBNRM ideals. Hence the SFP failed to significantly increase forest cover or improve the livelihoods of the target populations. We document the specific ways in which the SFP deviated from the assumptions of CBNRM. However, we conclude that the problem is systemic, related to the top-down imposition of a supposedly bottom-up process, and not simply a matter of improving project implementation. Thus improving rural livelihoods and natural resource management in complex marginal environments such as south-west coastal Bangladesh will require far more transformative institutional change than can be achieved by donor-initiated project interventions, no matter how worthy the ideals.     

A Vegetation History of the Far North of New Zealand during the Late Otira (Last) Glaciation

During the latter part of the last (Otira) glaciation the forest cover of New Zealand was much reduced. It has frequently been postulated, however, that diverse mixed forest communities survived in the far north of North Island. Pollen diagrams and radiocarbon dates from two last glacial and postglacial (Aranuian) sits on the Aupouri Peninsula in the far north of New Zealand are compared with other published palynological and plant macrofossil evidence from the region. Mixed kauri/podocarp/angiosperm forest was present at times during the late Otiran (and Aranuian) and no evidence was found for substantial loss of forest. However, radiocarbon samples from one site, at least, seem to have been contaminated with young carbon; this introduces uncertainty into the chronology established at that site. Possibly nondeposition or erosion has obscured part or all of the late Otiran record at all the sites studied so that very much reduced forest cover at that time cannot be ruled out.     

GIS-based evolutionary optimized Gradient Boosted Decision Trees for forest fire susceptibility mapping

Rampant pasture burning has lead to various forest fires taking their toll over the health of many forests. Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, located in the northern part of India, witnessed a majority of these incidents in the recent past, though, it remains comprehensively untouched from research studies. The scale of these wildfires has led to an immense requirement of preventive measures to be taken for recuperating from such events. This requires for an in-depth analysis of the study area, its history of wildfires and their causes. These efforts would assist in laying a blueprint for a contingency plan in the event of a wildfire. This work proposes an evolutionary optimized gradient boosted decision trees for preparing wildfire susceptibility maps for the study area that would aid in the government’s forest preservation and disaster management activities. The study took 18 ignition factors of elevation, slope, aspect, plan curvature, topographic position index, topographic water index, normalized difference vegetation index, soil texture, temperature, rainfall, aridity index, potential evapotranspiration, relative humidity, wind speed, land cover and distance from roads, rivers and habitations into consideration. The study revealed that approximately 1432.025 km² of area was very highly susceptible to forest fires while 1202.356 km² was highly susceptible to forest fires. The proposed model was compared against various machine learning models such as random forest, neural networks and support vector machines, and it outperformed them by achieving an overall accuracy of 95.5%. The proposed model demonstrated good prospects for application in the field of hazard susceptibility mappings.     

Fuzzy factorial analysis of snow avalanches

The mutual influence of 21 factors pertaining to terrain, weather, forest and snowpack have been discussed by 10 experts. The semantic (nil, weak, medium, high) evaluations are translated as membership degrees of fuzzy sets, and averaged between the experts by taking their fuzzy expectation value, yielding a 21 × 21 fuzzy matrix for direct interactions. Fuzzy successive multiplications and additions of the matrix give the indirect interactions. The activity and the passivity of the factors with respect to avalanches is represented by directed weighted graphs, and the average semantic values by a 4 × 4 matrix: the activity (passivity) is weak (strong) for tree damage; medium (nil) for altitude; medium (weak) for ground shape; medium (medium) for vegetation, soil, wind, microclimate, tree type, vertical distribution and mechanics of trees, snowpack distribution and snow gliding; strong (nil) for ground inclination and exposition, weather; strong (medium) for heat, precipitation, horizontal distribution of trees, snowpack constitution and stability.