Dynamics of loose granular flow and its subsequent deposition in a narrow mountainous river

A large amount of loose debris materials were deposited on the slope of mountainous areas after the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake. During and after the earthquake, these loose debris deposits collapsed and slide into valleys or rivers, changing river sediment supply condition and channel morphology. To investigate the mechanisms of granular flow and deposition, the dynamics of slope failure and sediment transportation in typical mountainous rivers of different intersection angles were analyzed with a coupling model of Computational Fluid Dynamics and Discrete Element Method(CFD-DEM). The numerical results show that the change of intersection angle between the granular flow flume and the river channel can affect the deposit geometry and the fluid flow field significantly. As the intersection angle increases, the granular velocity perpendicular to the river channel increases, while the granular velocity parallel to the river channel decreases gradually. Compared to the test of dry granular flow, the CFD-DEM coupling tests show much higher granular velocity and larger volume of sediments entrained in the river. Due to the river flow, particles located at the edge of the deposition will move downstream gradually and the main section of sediments deposition moves from the center to the edge of the river channel. As a result, sediment supply in the downstream river will distribute unevenly. Under the erosion of fluid flow, the proportion of fine particles increases, while the proportion of coarse particles decreases gradually in the sediment deposition. The build-up of accumulated sediment mass will cause a significant increase in water level in the river channel, thus creating serious flooding hazard in mountainous rivers.     

Development and installation of bedload monitoring systems with submerged load cells

Bedload governs riverbed channel variations and morphology, it is necessary to determine bedload discharge through an arbitrary cross section in a mountain river. A new system with submerged load cells has been developed to directly measure bedload discharge. The system consists of: (1) an iron box which is 1 m long, 0.5 m wide and 0.1 m in depth, (2) two submerged load cells 0.7 m apart, (3) a pressure sensor and, (4) an electromagnetic velocity meter. This system has been designed to exclude the effect of the hydraulic pressure of water on direct measurements of bedload particle weight. Initial tests in a laboratory were conducted to examine the accuracy of measurements with the system under aerial conditions. The system has been installed in the supercritical flume in Ashi-arai-dani River of the Hodaka Sedimentation Observatory of the Disaster Prevention Research Institute (DPRI) of Kyoto University to obtain bedload discharge under natural conditions. Flume tests were conducted in this channel by artificial supply of uniform sediment particles of several grain sizes. The average velocity of the sediment particles near the bed was estimated using cross-correlation functions for weight waves obtained by the two load cells. Bedload discharge calculations were based on time integration of the product of sediment velocity and sediment weight obtained by the two load cells. This study clarifies the reasons why bedload measurements are difficult, and provides some solutions using the monitoring systems with submerged load cells through the field measurements. Additionally, the applicability of bedload measurement with the submerged load cells is explained based on experimental artificial sediment supply data.     

西南山区交通工程弃渣的工程特性评价及其分类

山区交通工程弃渣力学参数的准确测定,一直是弃渣场边坡稳定性评价面临的基础科学问题。在山区交通工程弃渣场运行特点和弃渣固体废弃物特征认知的基础上,探讨弃渣取样和试验代表性问题的物理根源,依托实际工程累计数据尝试提出简单实用的弃渣工程特性评价和分类方法。结果表明:①常规交通工程弃渣的密度、颗粒分析和强度试验,由于弃渣的粒径范围差异大、颗粒空间分布不均、弃渣来源复杂等固体废弃物特征造成取样和试验代表性难题;用多阶段坡角测量和颗粒分析试验代替传统的弃渣边坡试验,解决了试验和取样代表性难题。②利用弃渣粗细比可将弃渣分为细粒弃渣、混合型弃渣和粗粒弃渣。③根据弃渣粗细比、天然休止角和整形坡率,将西南山区交通工程弃渣分为细粒弃渣、混合型弃渣和粗粒弃渣等3类。细粒弃渣,弃渣粗细比小于0.3,天然休止角小于31.5°,整形坡率为1.00∶2.00;混合型弃渣,弃渣粗细比为0.3~1.0,天然休止角为31.5°~39.5°,整形坡率为1.00∶2.00~1.00∶1.50;粗粒弃渣,弃渣粗细比大于1.0,天然休止角大于39.5°,整形坡率为1.00∶1.50。④用多阶段坡角测量、颗粒分析试验和无黏性土边坡稳定性系数计算公式代替传统的弃渣边坡试验和稳定性系数计算方法,方法简单,结果保守,可以作为弃渣边坡稳定性评价和安全控制技术的有益补充。     

Determination of influential parameters for prediction of total sediment loads in mountain rivers using kernel-based approaches

It is important to have a reasonable estimation of sediment transport rate with respect to its significant role in the planning and management of water resources projects. The complicate nature of sediment transport in gravel-bed rivers causes inaccuracies of empirical formulas in the prediction of this phenomenon. Artificial intelligences as alternative approaches can provide solutions to such complex problems. The present study aimed at investigating the capability of kernel-based approaches in predicting total sediment loads and identification of influential parameters of total sediment transport. For this purpose, Gaussian process regression(GPR), Support vector machine(SVM) and kernel extreme learning machine(KELM) are applied to enhance the prediction level of total sediment loads in 19 mountain gravel-bed streams and rivers located in the United States. Several parameters based on two scenarios are investigated and consecutive predicted results are compared with some well-known formulas. Scenario 1 considers only hydraulic characteristics and on the other side, the second scenario was formed using hydraulic and sediment properties. The obtained results reveal that using the parameters of hydraulic conditions asinputs gives a good estimation of total sediment loads. Furthermore, it was revealed that KELM method with input parameters of Froude number(), ratio of average velocity((1) to shear velocity(*) and shields number( ) yields a correlation coefficient(R) of 0.951, a Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency(NSE) of 0.903 and root mean squared error(RMSE) of 0.021 and indicates superior results compared with other methods. Performing sensitivity analysis showed that the ratio of average velocity to shear flow velocity and the Froude number are the most effective parameters in predicting total sediment loads of gravel-bed rivers.     

Fractal characterization of sediment particle-size distribution in the water-level fluctuation zone of the Three Gorges Reservoir,China

The combined effect of periodic water impoundment and seasonal natural flood events has created a 30 m high water-level fluctuation zone(WLFZ) around the Three Gorges Reservoir(TGR), China, forming a unique eco-landscape. Siltation, eutrophication, enrichment of heavy metals, and methane emissions in the WLFZ have been widely associated with sediment and soil particles generated from the upstream catchment or upland slopes. However, little attention has been paid to the complexity of sediment particle-size distributions in the WLFZ. In the present study, core samples(from a 345 cm thick sediment core from the base of the WLFZ), slope transect surface samples(across/up a WLFZ slope), and along-river/longitudinal surface samples(from the reservoir reaches) were collected. Laser granulometry and a volume-based fractal model were used to reveal the characteristics of sediment particle-size distributions. Results indicate that the alternation of coarse and fine particles in the sedimentary core profile is represented as a fluctuation of low and high values of fractal dimension(D), ranging from 2.59 to 2.77. On the WLFZ slope transect, surface sediment particles coarsen with increasing elevation, sand content increases from 3.3% to 78.5%, and D decreases from 2.76 to 2.53. Longitudinally, surface sediments demonstrate a downstream-fining trend, and D increases gradually downstream. D is significantly positively correlated with the fine particle content. We conclude that D is a useful measure for evaluating sediment particle-size distribution.     

The siltation of debris flow behind check dam in the midstream of Bailong River

Siltation gradient and siltation length are important parameters for designing gravity check dams for debris flows, which directly affect the accuracy of estimates of interception capacity. At present, siltation gradient calculations are based primarily on empirical values, and range from 0.4 to 0.95 times the channel slope coefficient. The middle reaches of the Bailong River are one of the four areas in China that are most severely affected by debris flow hazards. Gravity dams are widely employed in this mountainous area. However, field studies of their capacity are lacking. In this paper, the operations of check dams were investigated. Based on field investigation results and theoretical analysis, calculations for siltation gradient, siltation length, and dam storage capacity are established. The impact of debris flow density, channel slope, and particle size weight percentages are discussed. The calculations show that the theoretical values for siltation gradient are consistent with measured values with 83.6% accuracy; and theoretical values of siltation length are consistent with measured values with 91.6% accuracy. The results of this research are an important reference for optimal height and spacing of dams, estimation of dam storage capacity, and disaster prevention.     

反复入渗对重塑黄土渗透特性的影响

甘肃黑方台黄土经历长期的灌溉入渗破坏了其原生结构，改变了不同深度黄土的颗粒级配，影响了土体的力学性质。为研究反复灌溉入渗对坡体的影响，通过室内土柱渗透试验研究了反复入渗对甘肃黑方台黄土渗透特性的影响，并研究了渗透作用下黄土中细颗粒运移的规律与模式。研究表明:①水力梯度对渗透速率影响较小而干密度对渗透速率影响较大；随着入渗次数的增加，重塑黄土的渗透性能变弱；②黄土在渗流力的作用下，存在细颗粒沿渗流方向运移的现象，且细颗粒在土柱中上部聚集最多；③影响细颗粒运移的因素有:水力梯度、干密度和渗透次数；其中细颗粒的运移量与水力梯度、渗透次数呈正相关，与干密度呈负相关，且水力梯度是影响细颗粒运移的主要因素；④在渗透过程中，细颗粒运移堆积，最终填充土体内孔隙，导致黄土的渗透性下降。      

机器学习方法在预测泉水潜在出露位置中的应用

泉水出露受到多种因素影响,在传统地质勘查手段之外,各种模型方法及影响因子预测手段,也被越来越多地应用于泉水的研究中.本文尝试利用机器学习的方法进行泉水出露位置的预测研究.根据北京市野外调查,确定了1378个测试样本点,选取了高程、坡度、坡向、地形湿度指数、径流强度指数、距河流距离、距断裂距离、岩性、归一化植被指数及土地...     

Predicting sediment flux from continental shelf islands,southeastern China

Continental shelf islands are contributors of terrestrial sediment supply to shelf regions,and the sediment flux from these islands shall be quantified.We calculated the sediment flux of continental shelf islands in the southeastern China using two empirical equations under two preconditions.The first,the sediment load/yield of the islands has the same pattern as the adjacent small,mountainous rivers along the coastline;and the second,each of the islands was treated as a single catchment.The results show that the sediment supply from these islands reached an order of magnitude of 1 Mt/a,which is comparable to the supply from the local smaller rivers.A sensitivity analysis indicates that this value repre sents the lower limit of estimate;if the accurate amount of sub-catchments of any island is considered,then this value will be enhanced slightly.This study demonstrates that the sediment supply from continental shelf islands to oceans is an important factor affecting the regional sedimentation and,therefore,should be paid with attention.     

Numerical simulation for different motion forms of sliding soil along slope with PFC3D

The motion forms (deformation) of the sliding soil along the slope include inviscid particle flow, viscous particle flow, and mass sliding. The motion forms were mainly influenced by the mechanical properties of the viscous mud medium filling. The effect of the medium filling on the motion forms of the sliding soil is worth discussing. The sliding soil can be seen as the mixture which is composed of the medium filling and coarse particles. The Chengdu clay with different moisture contents were selected as the medium filling. Their mechanical parameters were experimentally measured for simulating the moving process of the sliding soil. Different motion forms of the sliding soil were numerical simulated based on PFC3D by changing the specific mechanical parameters. The mechanical parameters of the Chengdu clay are experimentally determined. The numerical results show that with the moisture content of the filling slurry medium in the range of >302%, 101%~182%, and <80%, the motion form of the sliding soil belongs to the inviscid particles flow (similar with the sliding sand), viscous particles flow (seen as the viscous flows); and mass sliding (seen as the block sliding along the slope surface), respectively.     

Numerical modeling of local scour around hydraulic structure in sandy beds by dynamic mesh method

Local scour, a non-negligible factor in hydraulic engineering, endangers the safety of hydraulic structures. In this work, a numerical model for simulating local scour was constructed, based on the open source code computational fluid dynamics model OpenFOAM. We consider both the bedload and suspended load sediment transport in the scour model and adopt the dynamic mesh method to simulate the evolution of the bed elevation. We use the finite area method to project data between the three-dimensional flow model and the two-dimensional (2D) scour model. We also improved the 2D sand slide method and added it to the scour model to correct the bed bathymetry when the bed slope angle exceeds the angle of repose. Moreover, to validate our scour model, we conducted and compared the results of three experiments with those of the developed model. The validation results show that our developed model can reliably simulate local scour.     

黑河山区流域平均坡长的计算与径流模拟

 流域平均坡长是侧向流和汇流时间计算的重要参数,其会影响地表径流的计算。应用SWAT 2005和ArcView GIS 3.2集成的AVSWAT模型,对黑河干流上游山区流域莺落峡出山口径流进行模拟,发现其计算的流域平均坡长存在较大误差,进而影响到模拟结果。利用子流域内已知的平均坡度和平均坡长建立回归方程,计算各子流域的平均坡长,替换AVSWAT计算的不合理值,在保持其他参数不变的情况下,模拟的月径流纳什系数从0.60提高到0.75,模拟结果得到显著提高。敏感性分析结果和径流曲线数(CN2)的分析也间接验证了流域平均坡长修正方法的可行性。在修正流域平均坡长后,对AVSWAT模型的其他参数CN2等进行优化,模拟的月径流的纳什系数达到0.81,表明本文建议的流域平均坡长计算方法是可以应用到实际的干旱区黑河流域并取得较好模拟效果。     

黄河三角洲海岸冲淤及泥沙输运模型数值模拟分析

黄河三角洲是陆海交界地带,陆地海洋相互作用显著,泥沙所引起的岸滩演变、港口航道的淤积、水动力环境的改变等问题比较复杂。该文采用三维HEM-3D数值模型对黄河三角洲海域流场变化、盐度、悬浮泥沙浓度及海岸冲淤分布进行了潮流周期内的数值模拟分析。结果表明,黄河三角洲海域的悬浮泥沙浓度分布与潮流场变化和河口泥沙输入有密切的关系,在三角洲北部受五号桩外强潮流区的影响,近岸海底的泥沙发生明显的再悬浮,并在涨潮流向南输送,含沙量达1.5 g/L左右。在三角洲南部(现行河口区域和莱州湾区域),受现行河口入海泥沙扩散的影响显著。海域年冲淤分布,在北部废弃三角洲区域,由于海洋动力作用强烈,浅水冲刷,海底侵蚀显著,形成了明显呈沿岸展布的侵蚀中心,在侵蚀中心以外,侵蚀快速减弱。在现行河口区域,以淤积为主,在羽状流扩散的控制下,泥沙入海后向南输运,至莱州湾区域逐渐减弱。数值模拟的结果与卫星遥感解译的岸线变化基本一致,效果良好。     

Landslides & debris flows formation from gravelly soil surface erosion and particle losses in Jiangjia Ravine

Gravelly soils are made up of gravel, sand, silt and clay. They are widely used in engineering applications such as rock-fill dams with clay cores, which are the main researches at present. The strength and mechanical properties of the gravelly soils are affected by the content of coarse grain, fine particles, and their adhesive states. These Properties can be verified by laboratory unconsolidated undrained triaxial tests with grain size less than 5 mm and by large scale direct-shear tests with original grain content. Fine particles of the loose gravelly slopes are released under rainfalls, alternated the structures and mechanical properties, even affected the slope stability. There are a series of large scale direct-shear tests with different coarse grain contents to study the influence of fine particles releasing and migration, results showed the strength behavior of the gravelly soils were affected by the coarse grain content （5） and the inflection coarse grain contents. In order to study the erosion features of the gravelly soil slopes on rainfall conditions and the slopes stability alteration, we had carried out one sort of artificial rainfall local and model experiments, the runoff sediment contents were monitored during the experiments. Result showed that the shapes of the slopes surface transformed periodically, runoff sediment contents were divided into five phases according to the experiment phenomena, runoff sediment contents maintained downtrend during the rain time and the downtrend was obviouslyinterpreted by one descend belt no matter the rainfall intensity and the slope angels. Particle size analysis released the deposit on the slope surface lost almost all of the clay, most of the silt and sand after the experiments, this meant the fine particles releasing, migration and accumulation process on condition of rainfall resulted in the instability factor of the slopes even induced landslide or debris flow.     

Anthropogenic Effect on Deposition Dynamics of Lake Sediments Based on ~（137）Cs and ~（210）Pb_（ex） Techniques in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve,China

Radionuclide dating techniques characterized by137Cs and210Pbex have recently been applied in the study of lake sediments around the world.In this study,a chronological series of sediment cores was established based on137Cs and210Pbex analyses along with the evaluation of sediment properties,such as particle size distribution,total organic carbon(TOC),carbonate content,and acid-insoluble residue,to study sediment accumulation rates,sediment sources,and responses to human activities in the Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve in southwestern China.In terms of the particle size distribution of sediments,silt content was the highest,and clay and sand contents were relatively low.The sediments displayed high TOC contents because of the significant amounts of vegetation grown in the lakes.The carbonate content was also high due to the overall geological background of carbonates in Jiuzhaigou.Carbonate content tended to decline from top to bottom in the sediment cores,whereas the acid-insoluble residue tended to increase.These results suggested that the depth variation of the environmental parameters of the sediments in two lakes in Jiuzhaigou would correspond to each other.The results indicated that the sediment rate of Jiuzhaigou was generally high with strong siltation,indicating that serious soil loss was induced by intensive human activities in the basin over the past decades.The increases in the mass accumulation rate,contents of acid-insoluble residue,and mean particle size during the periods of 1840–1900s,late 1930s–early 1950s,1966–1978,and2003–2006 revealed the occurrence of severe soil and water loss as a result of extensive agricultural expansion,large-scale deforestation,and road construction in Jiuzhaigou.The deposition rate and the properties of lacustrine sediments could reflect the significant impact of human activities on lake sedimentation during Jiuzhaigou′s history.     

Relationships between soil depth and terrain attributes in a semi arid hilly region in western Iran

Soil depth generally varies in mountainous regions in rather complex ways.Conventional soil survey methods for evaluating the soil depth in mountainous and hilly regions require a lot of time,effort and consequently relatively large budget to perform.This study was conducted to explore the relationships between soil depth and topographic attributes in a hilly region in western Iran.For this,one hundred sampling points were selected using randomly stratified methodology,and considering all geomorphic surfaces including summit,shoulder,backslope,footslope and toeslope;and soil depth was actually measured.Eleven primary and secondary topographic attributes were derived from the digital elevation model(DEM) at the study area.The result of multiple linear regression indicated that slope,wetness index,catchment area and sediment transport index,which were included in the model,could explain about 76 % of total variability in soil depth at the selected site.This proposed approach may be applicable to other hilly regions in the semi-arid areas at a larger scale.     

Discrete element modeling of debris avalanche impact on retaining walls

In China,gravity retaining walls are widely used as protection structures against rockfalls,debris flows and debris avalanches along the roads in mountainous areas.In this paper,the Discrete Element Method(DEM) has been used to investigate the impact of granular avalanches and debris flows on retaining walls.The debris is modeled as two dimensional circular disks that interact through frictional sliding contacts.The basic equations that control the deformation and motion of the particles are introduced.A series of numerical experiments were conducted on an idealized debris slide impacting a retaining wall.The parametric study has been performed to examine the influences of slope geometry,travel distance of the sliding mass,wall position,and surface friction on the impact force exerted on the wall.Results show that:1) the force achieves its maximum value when slope angle is equal to 60°,as it varies from 30° to 75°;2) an approximate linear relationship between the impact force and the storage area length is determined.     

Organic carbon losses by eroded sediments from sloping vegetable fields in South China

Soil Organic Carbon(SOC) is the most important component of soil. Though small, it determines soil fertility and prevents soil losses. In this study, we examined relationships between the Particle–Size Distribution(PSD) of the eroded sediment and SOC loss, and evaluated the effects of plant coverage ratios(0%, 15%, 30%, 45%, 60% and 90%), slope lengths(2 m, 4 m), fertilizer treatments(unfertilized control(CK), compound N–P–K fertilizer(CF), and organic fertilizer(OF)) on SOC loss and the SOC enrichment ratio(ERSOC) in the eroded sediments. The experimental results showed that longer slope length and lower surface cover ratios produced larger surface runoff and the eroded sediments, resulting in larger SOC losses. The average SOC loss was greatest in the OF treatment and SOC loss was mainly associated with the eroded sediment. Surface runoff, which causes soil erosion, is a selective transportation process, hence there were more claysized particles(2 μm) and silt-sized particles(2-50 μm) in the eroded sediments than in the original soils. SOC was enriched in the eroded sediments relative to in the original soil when ERSOC 1. ERSOC was positively correlated with ER_(clay)(2 μm)(R~2 = 0.68) and ERfine silt(2–20 μm)(R~2 = 0.63), and from all thesize particle categories of the original soil or the eroded sediments, more than 95% of SOC was concentrated in small-sized particles(50 μm). The distribution of SOC in different-sized particles of the original soil and the eroded sediment is primarily associated with clay-sized particles and fine silt-sized particles, thus we conclude that as the eroded sediment particles became finer, more SOC was absorbed, resulting in more severe SOC loss.     

Assessment of seasonal sedimentation in rain-fed irrigation reservoirs by a hillslope erosion modeling approach

A distributed hillslope model is presented for the computation of seasonal sediment loads flowing into the rain-fed irrigation reservoirs （tanks） from the mountainous catchments in Sri Lanka. The model is based on the subdivision of the catchment into hillslopes and application of a sediment transport capacity equation at hillslope scale and computation of sediment loads transported to the tanks. Coarse and fine sediment loads due to hourly excess rainfall during a season are separately estimated. The model depends on fewer parameters and can be easily calibrated for a tank. The model calibration only requires measurements of coarse and fine sediment loads transported into the tank due to several rainfalls of different intensities from a representative subcatchment of the tank. Coarse sediment loads are measured by using a sediment trap installed across an ephemeral stream draining the subcatchment. Fine sediment loads are obtained by measuring the discharge and accompanied sediment concentrations over the sediment trap. The model is calibrated, verified and applied for an irrigation tank in Sri Lanka to estimate the seasonal sedimentation loads.     

Debris flows introduced in landslide deposits under rainfall conditions: The case of Wenjiagou gully

Debris flows often occur in landslide deposits during heavy rainstorms. Debris flows are initiated by surface water runoff and unsaturated seepage under rainfall conditions. A physical model based on an infinitely long, uniform and void-rich sediment layer was applied to analyze the triggering of debris-flow introduced in landslide deposits. To determine the initiation condition for rainfall-induced debris flows, we conducted a surface water runoff and saturated-unsaturated seepage numerical program to model rainfall infiltration and runoff on a slope. This program was combined with physical modeling and stability analysis to make certain the initiation condition for rainfall-introduced debris flows. Taking the landslide deposits at Wenjiagou gully as an example, the initiation conditions for debris flow were computed. The results show that increase height of surface-water runoff and the decrease of saturated sediment shear strength of are the main reasons for triggering debris-flows under heavy rainfall conditions. The debris-flow triggering is affected by the depth of surface-water runoff, the slope saturation and shear strength of the sediment.