Agriculturally induced environmental changes in the Burren Karst,Western Ireland

 The Burren plateau of County Clare is a classic example of a plateau karst characterised by patchy, thin soils, a lack of defined surface drainage, and in the instance of the Burren, a rich floristic, archaeological and landscape heritage. Since accession to the European Union and, in particular, as a result of Common Agricultural Policy initiatives, attempts have been made to raise farm incomes and to modernise agriculture in areas such as the Burren. Due to the encouragement of land reclamation and silage production has largely replaced hay farming for winter fodder. These changes pose a threat to groundwater quality by enhancing the leaching of artificial fertilizers or of organic pollutants. The Burren is highly vulnerable to water pollution from silage effluent because of its thin or absent soils and its highly karstified aquifers. A full survey of silage clamps was made in the summers of 1991 and 1992. For each site data were collected to derive the following: mass of silage, effluent produced, hazard rating of site to groundwater, likely discharge of effluent to groundwater and groundwater dilution index. About 60% of clamps were considered to be high risk and 23% medium risk. About 92% of all sites probably allow some effluent to infiltrate groundwater. Received: 1 June 1995 · Accepted: 4 December 1995     

A coupled groundwater-flow-modelling and vulnerability-mapping methodology for karstic terrain management

A coupled groundwater-flow-modelling and vulnerability-mapping methodology for the management of karst aquifers with spatial variability is developed. The methodology takes into consideration the duality of flow and recharge in karst and introduces a simple method to integrate the effect of temporal storage in the unsaturated zone. In order to investigate the applicability of the developed methodology, simulation results are validated against available field measurement data. The criteria maps from the PaPRIKa vulnerability-mapping method are used to document the groundwater flow model. The FEFLOW model is employed for the simulation of the saturated zone of Palaikastro-Chochlakies karst aquifer, in the island of Crete, Greece, for the hydrological years 2010–2012. The simulated water table reproduces typical karst characteristics, such as steep slopes and preferred drain axes, and is in good agreement with field observations. Selected calculated error indicators—Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE), root mean squared error (RMSE) and model efficiency (E′)—are within acceptable value ranges. Results indicate that different storage processes take place in different parts of the aquifer. The north-central part seems to be more sensitive to diffuse recharge, while the southern part is affected primarily by precipitation events. Sensitivity analysis is performed on the parameters of hydraulic conductivity and specific yield. The methodology is used to estimate the feasibility of artificial aquifer recharge (AAR) at the study area. Based on the developed methodology, guidelines were provided for the selection of the appropriate AAR scenario that has positive impact on the water table.     

Interpretation of recent structures in an area of cryptokarst evolution—neotectonic versus subsidence genesis

The study area (Algarve) is located near the Eurasia–Africa plate boundary, experiencing significant tectonic and seismic activities. Regional geology is characterised by the presence of Mesozoic and Miocene carbonate rocks which are affected by karst phenomena. This karst is covered by terrigenous sediments of Upper Miocene and Pliocene–Pleistocene age. In the study area, the Pliocene–Quaternary cover deposits are affected by a large number of mesoscopic structures, including joints, faults, and a few folds, which indicate neotectonic activity. However, these sediments also present similar structures that result from underground karst evolution, raising the need to differentiate the neotectonic structures from those of non-tectonic origin. In fact, a variety of ductile, semi-brittle and brittle structures develop in the sediments that fill up the karst wells, controlled by different rheological behaviour of the cover deposits, various strain rates associated with sudden collapse or progressive sinking, and the variable shape of the karst pits walls. The structure’s geometry, geographical dispersion and directional scattering were used as criteria to infer a non-tectonic genesis. It is discussed whether some karst related structures may be controlled by the contemporary tectonic stress field and consequently are interpreted in the regional geodynamical framework.     

云南泸水市压扭性构造对银厂坪白云岩岩溶系统发育控制作用

银厂坪岩溶系统由溶蚀洼地和溶洞系统组成,溶蚀洼地内发育15个规模和形态不同的落水洞以及多条溶沟。根据断层面擦痕反演构造应力张量和共轭剪节理反映的应力场特征, 结合区域地质背景,认为研究区于始新世—早中新世主要受 SEE-NWW 向挤压和 NNE-SSW 向拉张应力场控制,形成 NW 向左旋压扭性构造,其几何学和运动学特征符合里德尔剪切模式。走滑拉分阶区所形成凹陷具有汇水功能,利于岩溶作用形成溶蚀洼地,内部发育的共轭节理交汇部位是良好的导水构造,叠加在走滑微拉分阶区内,促进白云岩溶蚀作用形成落水洞。地下岩层受构造挤压发生层间滑动形成微裂隙,经溶蚀扩大,形成顺倾斜岩层发育的岩溶洞穴。左行走滑断裂造成地表河流和山脊发生系统左旋位错,发育断层崖于山脚处形成倒石堆,在构造抬升和剥蚀作用下,岩壁不断后退,地下河频繁袭夺使早期溶洞成为干洞,现代地下河于斜坡下游通过地下河出口转为明流。     

Integrated high-resolution geophysical investigations as potential tools for water resource investigations in karst terrain

Karstic aquifers can be particularly vulnerable to both pollution from surface activities and large-scale dewatering from mineral winning operations. This is because of the enhanced vertical and lateral flow paths, resulting from the dissolution of carbonate species by rainfall. Often this process results in the development of voids that can range in size from several centimetres to several tens of metres. To date, groundwater vulnerability maps for England and Wales, including karst areas, have been produced using a methodology that does not consider the presence of karst features. The uncertainties that are presented by the potential for pollution by the presence of water-carrying conduits in karst areas, where there are proposed or existing limestone quarries, require new techniques for detecting and delineating underground cave systems. In order for any mapping technique to provide an acceptable assessment of vulnerability, the location and spatial distribution of high permeability flow paths need to be established. Of the available geophysics techniques that may allow for the identification of such features, microgravity and resistivity imaging are likely to be the most successful. Microgravity surveying has the potential to identify the presence and location of such voids, and with the integration of electrical tomographic work, can provide 'targets' for the location of monitoring boreholes. Whilst these techniques are intensive and may not be cost effective on a regional scale, they do have the potential to provide high-resolution data over smaller areas, which would be invaluable to any site or area-specific assessment of vulnerability.     

岩土工程瑞利波勘探新进展

本文从原理、仪器设备、资料解释和应用四个方面扼要综述了国内外正在发展的瑞利波勘探的三种方法:稳态法、瞬态法和长波微动法。这是瑞利波法推广的最新基础性资料。     

Stone,water and ice: The Burren and Cliffs of Moher UNESCO Global Geopark,County Clare,Ireland

This is an overview of the geology and geoheritage of the Burren and Cliffs of Moher UNESCO Global Geopark. The geology is Carboniferous, dominated by fossiliferous Mississippian limestones and mostly coastal exposures of Pennsylvanian siliciclastics. Late Pleistocene ice sheets subsequently formed significant features in the landscape. The Cliffs of Moher is the most visited outdoor tourist attraction in Ireland and tourism is a significant income source in the Geopark area. Education and research form a key part of the Geopark programme. The Burren and Cliffs of Moher UNESCO Global Geopark is managed by Clare County Council with support from Geological Survey Ireland.     

塔河油田下奥陶统碳酸盐岩储层对比及储层剖面模型

塔河油田奥陶系储层为岩溶缝洞型的碳酸盐岩储层，缝洞储层的形成与古岩溶作用密切相关，风化壳期岩溶作用对储集空间的发育程度有明显的控制作用。不同的储集空间类型受控于不同的岩溶古地貌单元。裂缝性储层主要分布于风化壳型岩溶不发育地区，或褶皱和断裂构造较发育的变化强烈部位；裂缝-孔洞型储层的分布与古岩溶发育带和岩溶斜坡地区密切相关；裂缝-溶洞型储层其分布与裂缝及古岩溶发育带密切相关，常常是在古岩溶高地边缘或部分岩溶斜坡区，多位于多组构造线的交汇处及褶皱的轴部等。为进一步探讨研究区缝洞型碳酸盐岩储层的空间展布规律，根据暴露区淡水岩溶作用发育特点，依据碳酸盐岩储层的波阻抗响应特征、测井曲线、测试成果及开发动态资料，在恢复古岩溶地貌的基础上，对塔河油田（6区）的岩溶值得层进行了划分与对比。研究结果显示高产井多位于古岩溶地貌相对较高部位，而产量较少或没有出油气的井，则位于岩溶地貌相对较低部位。表明早期的古地貌形态对奥陶系碳酸盐岩溶蚀孔洞的发育具有明显的控制作用。岩溶储层的垂向发育和分布主要受碳酸盐岩古岩溶风化壳垂向分带性的影响，纵向上由风化壳顶面向下储层发育逐渐变差。以奥陶系古风化壳顶面为界，向下每60m为单位，对深度0-60m、60-120m、120-180m、180-240m岩溶储层的纵横向分布特征进行了分析，并建立了相应的储层剖面结构模型。     

Environmental geology of ancient Greek cities

Man-environment relations in the ancient Greek world, as now, were complex interactions. To understand them, we need to study a range of physical features and man's impact on the setting. The underlying geological reality of this area is karst, which is widely distributed, dominating Greece, the southern half of Turkey, and southern Italy and Sicily, where the Greco-Roman cities that we study were located. Year-round water from karst springs was important because of scarce rainfall, intense evaporation, and infertile soil—none under human control. Examples from the Greek mainland (Corinth), an Aegean island (Rhodes), Turkey (Priene), and Sicily (Syracuse) are selected and described to suggest the way that karst water potential played an important role in site selection and development. A wider look at criteria for urban location and a new classification of urban patterns help to revise conventional understandings of these ancient cities. In conclusion, some modern findings about the interaction between city and setting suggest new research agendas for geologists and engineers, ancient historians and archaeologists, and water policy makers—preferrably working together.     

水中自然电场法探测病态水库岩溶渗漏通道———以金鸡河水库一级水电站为例

在岩溶区修建的水库或矿山尾矿库等建筑物,常因库区岩溶地质条件复杂而出现库水或污水渗漏等问题,岩溶渗漏通道勘察中常用的物探方法多布置在库区的大坝、坝肩等库岸陆地一带,未能对库内的库底岩溶塌陷等岩溶渗漏通道直接进行探测与评价,致使探测与治理效果往往不佳。本文以桂北金鸡河水库一级水电站放水涵管旁岩溶渗漏通道探测为例,研究水上自然电场法探测水库岩溶渗漏通道的原理、现场工作方法及探测效果。研究区出露地层主要由泥盆系榴江组（D3l）石灰岩夹白云岩、白云质灰岩,泥盆系东岗岭阶（D2d）白云岩、石灰岩、泥质灰岩组成,隐伏岩溶中等发育。区内一级水电站放水管入水口放水可引起强烈水上自然电位负心区域场,经采用圆周平均法划分水上自然电位区域场与剩余局部异常计算,分离出6个被强烈区域场淹盖了的次级似等轴状或似椭圆状负心水上自然电位剩余局部异常。经潜水员潜水入库内查看,这6个负心剩余局部异常区在库底均有岩溶塌陷或岩溶开口或库底渗漏天窗一一对应,其中,16线46-48号测点附近出现的似等轴状负心剩余局部异常对应的库底岩溶塌陷规模最大,塌陷坑直径约1.8 m,塌陷坑深约2.5 m,其余异常区对应的库底渗漏天窗或岩溶开口规模次之。经库内外水的简易连通实验及工程地质钻探,物探异常查证效果好。水上自然电场法可用于岩溶病态库区水上应急、快速圈定浅层岩溶渗漏通道范围等岩溶地质问题调查。      

Method of leakage study at the karst dam site. A case study: Khersan 3 Dam,Iran

The excellent topographic condition of the limestone canyons for dam construction may be rejected if they are karstified. Karst features cause the reservoir not to be impermeable enough to permit the water to fill it and leakage occurs and often increases with time. Moreover, karst features may involve the stability of the dam itself. A few operated dam sites at the Zagros Zone encountered a leakage problem. Furthermore, more than 30 dams are presently under study for construction in the Zagros Zone. Karst conditions and leakage potential were investigated at an under-study site (Khersan 3 Dam) for assessing the general methodology for the study of leakage potentials. Conventional methods for studying karst features, geological mapping, geomorphology and extensive borings were applied before the dam was constructed. These methods are not efficient enough to precisely reveal the karst structure, especially hidden and paleokarst, nor the hydrological behaviour of the karst structure in different settings of groundwater flow. Based on the present case study and previous applied approaches by other authors, this paper introduces a methodology by means of karst structure and functioning approaches at local and regional scales that cover the conventional methods and overcome their shortages. The proposed methodology should be applied before construction of a dam and should include three steps (a) recognition of geological and hydrogeological settings, (b) delineation and functioning of the karst system related to the future reservoir, and (c) assessment of the leakage potentials. Following this methodology, the most probable leakage zone(s) and path(s) at the dam site can be highlighted.     

北京西山圣莲山地质公园的岩溶地貌演化

圣莲山地质公园为房山北部大石河上游一个小型完整的岩溶盆地,地质构造属于百花山向斜的南翼。遣景岩石从下至上依次为,寒武纪张夏组鲕粒灰岩、炒米店组条带状石灰岩和奥陶纪石灰岩。遣貌构追为,印支运动．燕山运动和新构造运动。印支运动的南北向挤压形成响山背斜;燕山运动的北西-南东向挤压形成神牛岭和翠屏峰两个方向的岩溶墙;新构遣运动的8次抬升,形成穿洞（通风洞）、孤峰（莲子峰）、脚洞（圣米石塘）,房山地貌（笔架山）、岩溶夷平面（晾马台）、北西向岩溶墙（翠屏峰）、北东向岩溶墙（神牛岭）,溶洞（隐仙洞）岩溶地貌景观。穿洞为北京西山最高的岩溶洞穴,孤峰为残存的新近纪峰林地貌,圣米石塘为孤峰脚洞,笔架山为上新世石林与第四纪岩溶陡壁组合成的房山地貌,晾马台为中更新世形成的岩溶夷平面,翠屏峰和神牛岭为晚更新世形成的岩溶墙,隐仙洞为全新世形成的岩溶洞穴。     

基于FEFLOW的岩溶管道模型构建方法探讨

岩溶管道流模型的刻画一直是岩溶区开展地下水数值模拟研究中的难点所在,基于此,文章以贵州六枝特区某项目为例进行地下水数值模拟研究,探索了在FEFLOW离散特性功能模块下岩溶管道流模型的刻画方式与方法。在详细分析研究区地质及水文地质条件的基础上,对研究区范围、边界、含水层结构等概化,建立了研究区的水文地质概念模型;以ArcGIS软件为辅助,基于有限元法的FEFLOW软件为操作平台,利用区内钻孔资料及野外测算结果,通过软件公式编辑、插值等功能分别获得各层顶底板高程属性,将数据输入FEFLOW后,对模拟区平面三角剖分进而空间离散构建了研究区的三维地质模型;并利用FEFLOW软件的离散特性功能模块,将研究区灰场南部岩溶洼地与岩脚泉间划定为特定区域,建立缓冲区并给予其高特异性,耦合哈根-泊肃叶流体流动公式,在模型中刻画了岩溶管道流模型;最后探讨了特殊地质构造与岩溶管道模型的刻画方式与方法刻画出了符合案例区的三维向斜褶皱地质模型和岩溶管道流模型。      

A parsimonious distributed model for simulating transient water flow in a high-relief karst aquifer

A mathematical model of a highly heterogeneous functioning karst aquifer is described. The aquifer is in a high-relief karst massif and, as is common for such locations, data are scarce and there are no borehole, piezometer or pumping-test data. The scarcity of data in this case required a parsimonious approach to ensure that the level of complexity of the model was commensurate with the amount, type and quality of the available data. Parsimony also requires the model to include the minimum essential components that account adequately for the data, which in this and similar cases are the functional dualities of the karst system: duality in recharge, flow and discharge. The model is three-dimensional (3D) in the sense that the aquifer is discretized into 3D voxels, although the flow is one-dimensional (1D) and vertical in the vadose zone, and horizontal and two-dimensional (2D) in the saturated zone. The parsimonious model was designed by coupling a 1D unsaturated gravity-driven flow along the vertical (along each column of voxels that discretize the aquifer) and a 2D unconfined Darcy flow in the saturated zone. In the context of this type of aquifer, preferential recharge through the network of karst conduits implies a rapid rise in the water table, the location and extension of which are model parameters. The karst springs are simulated by drains. The methodology, which is completely general, is illustrated by application to the karst aquifer in the Sierra de las Nieves mountains in southern Spain.     

Texture Analysis of Grey-Tone Images by Mathematical Morphology: A Nondestructive Tool for the Quantitative Assessment of Stone Decay

Both a low-cost and easily handled nondestructive methodology and its validation criterion are proposed. The methodology is based on image analysis by mathematical morphology for the assessment of decayed stone surfaces in historic limestone buildings. It is adapted to follow the evolution, at macroscopic time and space scales, of stone materials used in art pieces and monument building stones. This methodology is applied to the quantitative analysis of textures of static grey-tone CCD video camera images representative of flat stone structures that cannot be handled. These structures line the walls inside an important church, Basílica da Estrela, built in the 18th century and located in the city of Lisbon. Detailed visual/tactile observation shows that these flat vertical structures are more or less damaged depending on their position inside the church. The damage is possibly associated with different environment conditions both from the atmosphere inside the church and from contact with the walls of the church. The presence of these pathologies breaks down the order and organization of sound rock textures introducing changes in the topographical and optical characteristics of the texture of the surfaces. This new methodology is based on the granulometry and covariance analysis of grey-tone images corresponding to the structures studied. The validation criterion allows the results of the proposed methodology to be compared to the results of a previous qualitative study made by experts in the field using visual assessment and monument mapping as a valid methodology to assess the degree of decay. This procedure is based on optical and topographical characteristics and type of decay of the stone surface, and the quantity of material lost from the surface of the panels during the year. As discussed in this paper, in the context of cultural heritage, the proposed methodology was validated and its results can be considered an improvement on and complementary to expert visual analysis and also to other nondestructive techniques.     

复杂岩溶含水介质概化初探

介质概化是水文地质概念模型建立和进行地下水流三维数值模拟的基础。目前国内、外已建立的岩溶介质地下水流模型,都有一个共同的特点:在进行岩溶介质概化的时候,大都采用等效裂隙介质模型方法。由于岩溶介质的空间不连续性和各向异性,决定了采用该方法概化岩溶介质必然造成与实际情况不符。为了更加准确地概化岩溶含水介质,同时也为了使概化后的介质模型,能比较真实地刻画出实际岩溶介质的含水层,这里以广西合山煤田为例,针对岩溶含水介质的特征,以及岩溶发育规律,提出了对模拟区域采用多种方法进行介质概化,对不同类型的岩溶介质采用不同的方法进行概化处理,从而实现了对复杂岩溶介质的概化。     

Engineering-Geological Problems in the Moravian Karst,Czech Republic

The Moravian karst belongs to one of the famous karst regions in Central Europe. It is situated in Moravia in the eastern part of the Czech Republic. According to the geology it is of Devonian age and the main rocks are of different types of limestones. The process of karstification is still active. They are many caves with rich stalagmites and stalactites and the Macocha abyss, the depth of which is 138.5 m. The underground Punkva River flows through the main part of the karst, forming beautiful underground lakes. Typical karst phenomena, such as sinkholes and deep canyons, may be observed on the surface of the terrain. Because of the karstification, water erosion and frost weathering, many steep unstable slopes and walls originated. To solve the stability from a geotechnical point of view is not easy. This requests a special engineering-geological knowledge and experience.     

陇东盆地西部岩溶地下水形成机制研究

陇东盆地西部处于鄂尔多斯盆地西缘逆冲推覆构造带，新元古-下古生界碳酸盐岩裸露或浅埋，构成-南北向展布的岩溶水富集带。通过运用构造控水分析、水化学同位素等方法，对岩溶裂隙水系统进行了深入的分析与讨论。指出本区岩溶水的空间分布明显受南北向逆冲推覆构造控制，储水空间以岩溶裂隙为主，构造条件是岩溶发育和岩溶水富集的主要制约因素。岩溶水化学特征具有明显的南北差异，在补给条件优越的中南部平凉-华亭地区，水化学主要由含水层岩性及其赋存条件决定。岩溶地下水以大气降水来源为主，对于埋藏型岩溶水表现为多源水混合而成。根据岩溶水的空间分布与水动力场特征及其补径排条件，全区可划分为平凉、华亭和环西3个相对独立的岩溶水系统．并以此可作为水资源评价的基础。这些认识对于深入了解西北干旱-半干旱地区岩溶水赋存及富集规律、形成与演化机理和在该区开发利用岩溶地下水资源具有重要的科学意义。     

铁路施工期岩溶地质宏观预测专家系统研究

岩溶的发育受到多种因素控制,具有不确定性,在结合宜万铁路齐岳山隧道、八字岭隧道、野三关隧道、马鹿青隧道以及渝怀铁路圆梁山隧道等多座岩溶地区山岭隧道的岩溶洞穴发育分布特征分析研究的基础上,提出了包括地层岩性、地质构造、地形地貌、地表水、地下水、隧道设计等因素在内的隧道工程岩溶超前预报的地质分析指标体系,明确了岩溶灾害发生危险性的高、中、低3个等级的工程地质标志性特征,应用专家评价法研究了各个指标的权重,构建了超前地质预报专家系统知识库,研制了山岭隧道岩溶超前地质预报专家系统,通过宜万铁路具体隧道工程的实际应用探讨了专家系统预测的可靠性。     

Hydrogeological approach to investigation in karst for possible modification of groundwater regime and increase of recoverable reserves

An artificial contribution to groundwater reserves in the areas of interest for water supply is a principal methodological target in modern hydrogeology. Investigations directed to this goal are of increasing significance all over the world to meet the growing demand for good water, which groundwater generally can be. Progress has been made in the sphere of practical development in permeable rocks of intergranular porosity, which cannot be said of discontinuous karst media, although it seems to offer greater opportunities. The ingrained notion and fear, even among specialists, of the inherent risk and uncertainty were invariably present wherever a resource was discovered in karst of a geosynclinal area; consequently progress has been limited. The reasons, however, for such a cautious approach are diminishing, because much knowledge has been gained about these aquiferous rocks, especially through investigations in the regions of surface storage reservoirs. Better knowledge of karst features and the results achieved in construction and consolidation of surface reservoirs have indicated that large amounts of groundwater can be recovered. The conventional water investigation and recovery methods have made available only small safe yields equal to the lowest natural discharge on the order of 100 I/sec). A reasonable use of a karst water resource and its better management cannot be considered without artificial control of the groundwater regime, i.e., without adjusting the regime to human demands. Groundwater flow balance in karst is becoming one of the principal problems, and future activities should be directed to the search for a bolder solution. A multidisciplinary team of geologists, geomorphologists, hydrogeologists, hydrologists, hydraulic engineers, etc., is required. In this paper a variety of solutions for water resource utilization in naked geosynclinal karst is suggested and far greater activity in this field is encouraged.