岩石破裂过程中电阻率变化机理的探讨

受压岩石在破裂过程中,视电阻率会出现明显的变化,其异常形态与实验条件有很大的关系. 实验中对磁铁石英岩样品施加了单轴压缩,岩石的破裂经反复加载和卸载实现,并在岩样的裂隙中注入了食盐溶液. 在实验的各阶段,对样品的主剖面重建出一系列内部真电阻率分布的图像,揭示了介质内的微细结构,从而探讨了视电阻率变化的原因. 实验发现,岩石中裂隙的存在及所含液体的饱和状态,是岩石在主破裂前控制电阻率变化的两个最重要的因素;低应力状态属常态导电过程,孔隙度的变化是主要因素;高应力状态属裂隙表面导电机制,随着破裂面在岩体内部出现,水和孔隙有了完全贯通的平面,多种导电机制都得以发挥作用. 此外,体导电结构的变化在宏观上表现为各向异性和图样有序性的增强.     

岩石电阻率的实验研究

本文首先概述岩石在室内各种受载条件下电阻率的实验研究工作,这对于认识和理解电阻率变化特征、规律以及探索其机理起着重要的作用。但是在实验中主要采用4个固定电极的测量系统,它只能获得从某个深度到岩样表面的整个深度层的视电阻率变化的综合信息,而无法获得不同深度层的视电阻率变化特征,不利于进一步研究电阻率及其各向异性变化的机理。我们利用电阻率层析成像方法获得了多个方向的电阻率数据,据此可以获得随深度变化的电阻率及其各向异性曲线以及随应力变化的电阻率图像,可能为深入理解和研究电阻率变化机理起到积极的帮助。      

利用大样本岩石破裂实验模拟扩容-扩散孕震模式的某些结果(一)s

用采自现场的500 mm500 mm1 000 mm的天然灰岩,在注水条件下模拟扩容-扩散(D-D)孕震模式,并以多种监测手段追踪受载岩石样品从变形、微裂到大破裂全过程有关的物理场的时空演化特征．分析视电阻率结果表明:① 受载岩石从微裂到大破裂全过程与电阻率前兆的时空演化进程基本吻合;② 电阻率前兆的时间进程具有阶段性,空间分布具有差异性;③ 岩石大破裂前观测到明显的趋势异常和短期前兆,并发现部分似可被确认为临震异常的电阻率前兆．电阻率的变化和分布特征似乎显示了与岩石样品受载过程的膨胀现象有某种内在联系．但未找到岩石膨胀的直接证据．最后,从理论上探讨了受载岩石样品电阻率变化的机理．      

受载条件下大型灰岩样品的电阻率前兆特征

用实验方法研究了500mm×500mm×1000mm的大型天然灰岩样品从微裂到大破裂的电阻率前兆特征,对资料的初步分析表明:(1)电阻率异常的时空演化进程与岩石从受力、变形到破坏的整个过程密切相关;(2)电阻率异常的空间分布具有差异性,时间演化具有阶段性;(3)在整个加载过程中电阻率变化有明显的“趋势”异常,岩石大破裂前观测到了“短期”前兆和“临震”突变。这些实验结果为大地震前野外地电阻率法观测资料的物理解释提供了实验依据。最后,利用所观测到的电阻率前兆特征对受载条件下灰岩样品的变形破坏过程进行了初步讨论。     

单轴压力下有补给水岩石电阻率变化各向异性研究

将两种规格的长方体水饱和花岗岩标本，以标本一个面的中心点为中心，对称布置成互成４５°角的４条对称四极法电阻率测线。标本电极面和相邻面的一小部分用防水环氧胶密封，使标本在装有水的承压水箱中，沿标本长轴方向受压，观测标本视电阻率随压力的变化。实验结果为：（１）有补给水实验与无补给水实验，电阻率变化整体形态相似，即电阻率随压力的变化先上升，后下降，但有补给水实验的电阻率下降幅度要大一些。（２）电阻率变化出现明显的方向性，可以用电阻率变化最大的各向异性主轴方向表示；实验中，用４条测线、４种组合（每３条测线组合可以确定１个视电阻率变化各向异性主轴方向）方法确定的４个电阻率变化各向异性主轴方向基本一致。（３）加压期间，电阻率各向异性主轴方向随压力增加发生变化，这种变化不是渐变和乱变，而是有规律的跃变，即整个实验过程，多数标本只跃变１—３次，每次跃变形成一个主方向，在主方向内，角度变化不大。（４）有补给水岩石电阻率变化整体形态与美国Ｂｒａｃｅ等（１９６８）所作的围压和孔隙压的岩石电阻率变化形态相似。     

水对岩石变形过程中电阻率变化的影响

实验研究表明: 在变形破坏过程中, 干燥砂岩电阻率略有下降, 变化幅度小; 少量含水的砂岩电阻率下降幅度大; 含水量多的砂岩电阻率有下降-上升-下降的变化, 变化幅度又小;而完全水饱和的砂岩除初期电阻率有所下降外, 变化更小。更精确的观察表明: 干燥砂岩, 破裂前电阻率有升高的迹象; 少量含水的样品, 破裂前电阻率单调下降; 含水量较多和水饱和的样品, 破裂前电阻率有先升高后降低的变化。这些有可能给出中短期前兆特征的提示。对电阻率变化的机理给出了解释。     

岩石变形特征及物理特性的现场试验研究

在从化南昆山脉蚀变花岗岩岩体试洞中,用刚性承压板法进行大尺度试件现场试验.承压三板直径50cm.蚀变带宽约1-2m.测量了岩石的变形特征、视电阻率和声发射以及试洞地坪的倾斜变化.与室内小试件实验对比可以看出:(1)在水溶液网络导电机制适用的范围内,大试件和小试件的电阻率随应力应变变化的基本形态都是相似的:(2)大试件电阻率对应力的滞后效应更为明显;3)大试件可在较小的应力差下获得较大的电阻率变化;4)电阻率变化值与应力差之间没有简单的线性关系.      

岩石变形特征及物理特性的现场试验研究

在从化南昆山脉蚀变花岗岩岩体试洞中,用刚性承压板法进行大尺度试件现场试验.承压三板直径50cm.蚀变带宽约1-2m.测量了岩石的变形特征、视电阻率和声发射以及试洞地坪的倾斜变化.与室内小试件实验对比可以看出:(1)在水溶液网络导电机制适用的范围内,大试件和小试件的电阻率随应力应变变化的基本形态都是相似的:(2)大试件电阻率对应力的滞后效应更为明显;3)大试件可在较小的应力差下获得较大的电阻率变化;4)电阻率变化值与应力差之间没有简单的线性关系.     

承压介质电阻率变化的方向性 与主应力的关系

介质电阻率变化的方向性与主应力方向的关系研究一直受到岩石电阻率实验和地震学等学科的关注. 本文在电极面4 cm×8 cm, 6 cm×12 cm, 8 cm×16 cm和4.6 cm×10 cm的10块分别为花岗岩、 凝灰质粗砂岩(夹砾石)和细晶花岗岩标本上及100 cm×100 cm的1块人工合成模型上, 采用对称四极法布设多位置、 多极距、 多方位电阻率测线, 用单轴压缩、 二维约束差应力压缩、 低围压三轴差应力压缩和真三轴差应力压缩方式加载. 其中在单轴压缩和低围压三轴压缩加载方式下, 7块岩石标本中的4块被压破, 3块没有被压破, 只压到电阻率出现明显的下降异常时卸压. 另在上述10块岩石标本中, 还有3块是电阻率原始各向异性标本. 将这样11块标本所获得的多位置、 多极距、 多方位测线电阻率资料, 按从开始加载到破裂的过程, 分成30%附近破裂应力段、 50%附近破裂应力段、 80%附近破裂应力段和100%破裂应力段, 研究同一测点多方位测道中该4个破裂应力段视电阻率变化最大(最小)幅度测线方位与力源最大主压应力方位的关系, 结果未发现二者之间有确定的关系.      

原始电阻率各向异性岩石电阻率变化的方向性

在3种非含岩成分造成的岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本(在采集和加工过程中，标本完整性遭 到破坏的标本)，和一种由含岩成分形成的 岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本上，布设多个电极，并将标本用水饱和. 然后用多电极组合法 ，将己布电极组合成不同方向、不同极距的电阻率各向异性测线. 采用单轴压缩、低围压 三 轴压缩和剪切3种加载方式，对标本进行动态电阻率变化实验. 观测标本电阻率随承载力的 变化. 实验结果表明∶对于岩石原始电阻率各向异性标本，在电阻率变化各向异性方面，与 岩石 原始电阻率各向同性标本相似，即∶裂隙和破碎带通过区域的测点，视电阻率变化各向异性 结果好，４种组合求得的４个各向异性主轴方向趋向一致，且与破碎带方向基本吻合；裂隙 和破碎带不经过区域的测点，４个视电阻率变化各向异性主轴方向不一致，或者根本求不出 各向异性解. 这后一种情况，在裂隙面平行测量面时，表现最为明显.     

Verification of precarious rock methodology using shake table tests of rock models

Precariously balanced rocks in seismically active regions are effectively upper-limit strong motion seismoscopes that have been in place for thousands of years. Thus, estimates of the dynamic toppling acceleration of these rocks (through rigid body rocking) can provide constraints on the peak ground accelerations experienced during past earthquakes. We have developed a methodology that uses a two-dimensional numerical code to calculate the dynamic rocking response of precarious rocks to realistic ground acceleration time histories. Statistical analyses of the dynamic response of these rocks to a range of synthetic seismograms, as well as strong motion records, can provide important information about the ground motion attenuation curves and seismic hazard maps. We use shake table tests to investigate the dynamic rocking response of 13 wooden rectangular blocks of various sizes and aspect ratios subjected to realistic seismograms and compare the results with those of numerical tests. Our results indicate good agreement between the shake table and numerical results.     

Complexities of rock fracture and rock friction from deformation of Westerly granite

A series of rock friction experiments has been carried out to study the complexities in rock fracture and rock friction. Intact Westerly granite samples were loaded to shear failure in a laboratory polyaxial loading apparatus. The resultant fractured samples were reloaded to cause frictional sliding. Both polyaxial loading (₁ > ₂ > ₃ > 0) and equal confining condition (₁ > ₂ = ₃ > 0) were used. The deformation processes were monitored by macroscopic axial stress-strain, optical holography, and ultrasonic velocity measurements.Intense localized deformation along the fracture occurred very early in the loading of fractured samples. Contacts on the fracture surfaces continuously broke during loading. No acoustic velocity anomaly was observed for the fractured sample, in contrast to a 25% drop in the velocity before the failure of the corresponding intact sample. The current study and previous research suggest that the deformation localization is an important process in governing the instability of rock friction. Instability analysis of rock friction needs to include not only the deformation processes along the sliding surfaces, but also those adjacent to the fractures such as the localized deformation along the fractures observed in the current study. The instability analysis of rock friction with rate- and state-dependent friction laws does not specifically include the deformation localization adjacent to the faults and thus ignores an important class of instability as described byRudnicki (1977).A dependence of frictional strengths on the stress components normal to the sliding and in the plane of the fracture surface was observed. This dependence can be understood by considering the loading of the irregular fracture surface under polyaxial loading conditions. This observation requires the friction laws in the macroscopic scale to be modified for those cases where the three principal stresses (₁, ₂, and ₃) are significantly different.     

Scales of rock permeability

Permeability is a transport property which is currently measured in Darcy units. Although this unit is very convenient for most purposes, its use prevents from recognizing that permeability has units of length squared. Physically, the square root of permeability can thus be seen as a characteristic length or a characteristic pore size. At the laboratory scale, the identification of this characteristic length is a good example of how experimental measurements and theoretical modelling can be integrated. Three distinct identifications are of current use, relying on three different techniques: image analysis of thin sections, mercury porosimetry and nitrogen adsorption. In each case, one or several theoretical models allow us to derive permeability from the experimental data (equivalent channel models, statistical models, effective media models, percolation and network models). Permeability varies with pressure and temperature and this is a decisive point for any extrapolation to crustal conditions. As far as pressure is concerned, most of the effect is due to cracks and a model which does not incorporate this fact will miss its goal. Temperature induced modifications can be the result of several processes: thermal cracking (due to thermal expansion mismatch and anisotropy, or to fluid pressure build up), and pressure solution are the two main ones. Experimental data on pressure and temperature effects are difficult to obtain but they are urgently needed. Finally, an important issue is: up to which point are these small scale data and models relevant when considering formations at the oil reservoir scale, or at the crust scale? At larger scales the identification of the characteristic scale is also a major goal which is examined.     

Discussion on blasting vibration monitoring for rock damage control in rock slope excavation

Drill and blast is a commonly used method for rock slope excavation in hydropower engineering. During blasting excavation of rock slopes, far-field vibration monitoring on the first upper berm for statutory compliance is usually performed to control the blast-induced rock damage to the final slope face. In this study, for the rock slope excavation in the Jinping-I hydropower station, the field vibration monitoring and acoustic testing are presented to investigate the vibration characteristics on...     

Manganese-rich rock coatings from Iceland

Manganese-rich rock coatings are widespread in Iceland, especially in fractures in basalt lavas. Three common types of coating are described. A thick subsurface coating is found on whaleback forms on high plateaux. The most common type is thinner and occurs in hydrothermal clay-filled fracture systems which are especially well developed in tholeiite lavas. A third type occurs in younger rocks and is associated with tephra-rich, loessic sediment which fills open fractures and vesicles. There are differences in the chemistry, morphology, and mineralogy of these coatings which are interpreted as being due to the different microenvironments in which they form. The fracture microenvironment is regarded as being of much more importance to coating thickness and chemistry than simple age and in this respect the hydrothermal clays seem to favour rapid manganese concentration. On the other hand, there are variations in coating type, both laterally and vertically through the lava succession, which are related to regional distribution of hydrothermal alteration and rock type. The regional patterns are the result of Iceland's lateral drift and as a result there is an incidental connection between coating type and rock age. There is some evidence to suggest that the manganese coatings may be both forming and being degraded rapidly in the present environment.     

应力作用对岩石磁性的影响

应力作用对岩石磁性的影响对于地震磁效应、磁性构造学、下地壳与上地幔物质磁性结构及陨石磁学研究等具有潜在的意义.本文对上世纪50年代以来,有关应力作用下,岩石(或磁性矿物)的磁化率及其各向异性、剩磁、磁滞特征和磁性(高温、低温)转换点等磁性特性的变化特征及影响岩石磁性对应力作用响应特性的主要因素进行了系统地总结.结果表明...     

多重孔岩石微分等效介质模型及其干燥情形下的解析近似式

经典的微分等效介质(DEM)理论可用于确定多孔介质的弹性性质,但由于缺乏多重孔DEM方程,其估计的多重孔岩石的等效弹性模量依赖于包裹体(即不同孔隙纵横比的孔或缝)的添加顺序.本文首先从Kuster-Toksöz理论出发建立了Zimmermann和Norris两种形式的多重孔DEM方程.Norris形式的多重孔DEM方程预测的等效弹性模量总是位于Hashin-Shtrikman上下限内,而Zimmermann形式的多重孔DEM方程有时会越界.然后,通过使用干燥岩石模量比的解析近似式,对两个相互耦合的Norris形式DEM方程进行解耦得到干燥多重孔岩石的体积和剪切模量解析式.用全DEM方程的数值解对解析近似式的有效性进行了测试,解析公式的计算结果在整个孔隙度分布区间与数值解吻合良好.对实验室测量数据在假设岩石含有双重孔隙的情形下用双重孔DEM解析公式对岩石的弹性模量进行了预测,结果表明,解析式准确地预测了弹性模量随孔隙度的变化.双重孔(即软、硬孔)DEM解析模型可用来反演各孔隙类型的孔隙体积比,它可以通过实验室测量与理论预测之间的平方误差最小反演得到.砂岩样品的反演结果揭示,软孔的孔隙体积百分比与粘土含量没有明显的相关性.     

Rapid formation of rock varnish and other rock coatings on slag deposits near Fontana,California

Manganiferous rock varnish, silica glaze and iron skins have formed on 20- to 40-year-old slag piles near Fontana, southern California. Rapid rock-varnish formation is associated with an unidentified cocci bacterium that grows rapidly in culturing experiments, combined with the likelihood that Mn-rich solutions flow over slag surfaces. A new model is proposed for the formation of silica glaze, involving soluble Al-Si complexes and the nature of wetting films. Iron skins occur where runoff is concentrated, and where iron bacteria grow. Observations indicate: (i) substrate can be important in supplying Mn, as well as maintaining a stable surface and channelling runoff to microspots where varnish grows; (ii) ignorance of boundary layer pH/Eh conditions makes chemical-physical models of varnish formation speculative; (iii) the balance between cementation of recently nucleated varnishes and erosional shear stresses is poorly understood, but is probably an important limiting factor on varnish growth rates; and (iv) there must be at least two steps in biotic varnishing-accretion of Mn-Fe in casts, followed by cementation of clays by either in situ cast residue or Mn-Fe remobilized from casts. Varnish accretion may be limited by the rate at which both steps occur. Rapid development of readily distinguishable manganiferous rock varnishes at this post-1952 site highlights the danger of speculation on the ages of landforms based solely on the appearance of rock-varnish coatings.     

Thermal properties as controls on rock surface temperature maxima,and possible implications for rock weathering

Four rock types (basalt, sandstone, granite, and chalk) are examined with respect to the maximum surface temperatures which they experience when subjected to similar conditions of exposure. Rock temperature measurements are reported for an urban environment and for two experimental situations in which an infrared lamp is used to simulate heating under cold and hot conditions. Differences in rock temperatures are discussed with reference to thermal rock properties (albedo, specific heat capacity, and thermal conductivity). Some natural situations are suggested in which thermal rock properties could conceivably play a role in determining the extent to which rocks would be affected by particular weathering processes.     

冲击矿压危险预测的电磁辐射原理

由于煤岩冲击破裂过程中,裂缝的形成和颗粒的摩擦会产生电磁辐射,因此,可采用电磁辐射技术来预测煤矿的冲击矿压危险.研究表明,电磁辐射基本上随着加载及变形速率的增加而增强;在发生冲击性破坏以前,电磁辐射强度一般在某个值以下,而在冲击破坏时,电磁辐射强度突然增加;煤体应力越大,变形破裂越强烈,电磁辐射信号也越强.煤岩变形破坏的弹塑脆性模型分析表明,煤岩体的损伤速度与电磁辐射脉冲数、声发射事件数成正比,与瞬间释放的能量、变形速度成正比.对具有强冲击危险工作面进行的研究表明,电磁辐射完全可以预测煤矿冲击矿压危险,检验卸压爆破效果,而且准确率高,效果明显.