基于DEM的复杂地形流域特征提取

利用流域数字高程模型(DEM)构建数字水系模型并提取流域水系特征是分布式水文过程模拟的重要前提。提出了面向分布式水文过程模拟和流域特征提取的数字水系模型,并针对现有方法对复杂地形DEM中含有的平地、洼地及其嵌套情形的处理不足,提出了栅格水流分类、填洼分类与归并及有效填平处理、河谷平地的出流代价法构建栅格流向和流序等新的处理方法,并在开发的软件系统得到实现。使用该方法创建的黄土岭流域数字水系模型和提取的水系等流域特征结果表明:本文方法可有效应对复杂地形流域的处理,提取的流域水系特征与实际自然水系比较吻合,能够有效地消除现有方法在地形平坦区域容易产生的平行河道、奇异河道、河道变形等不足。     

黄河中游悬移质泥沙粒径与流域环境的关系

以黄河中游多沙粗沙区为研究区，在流域泥沙粒径、降雨、地面物质组成、地面形态、植被和高含沙水流等资料采集的基础上，采用“环境要素法”和多元回归分析来阐明泥沙粒径空间分异的机理。研究表明，随降雨不均匀系数的减小，断面最大含沙量的减小，流域内黄土覆盖面积的增大，以及植被盖度的增大和沟谷密度的减小，悬移质泥沙粒径趋于变细，反之，趋于变粗。其中，流域地面物质对泥沙粒径组成起最重要的控制作用，其次是植被，高含沙水流、沟谷密度和降雨影响作用相对较小。     

黄河中游流域地貌形态对流域产沙量的影响

在黄河中游地区 ,选择了 5 0多个面积约 5 0 0～ 2 5 0 0平方公里的水文测站流域 ,分别代表 6种不同自然地理类型 ,在流域沟壑密度、沟间地坡度小于 15°面积百分比等地貌形态指标量计的基础上 ,进行了流域产沙量与地貌形态指标相关分析。结果表明 ,对于不同类型流域 ,流域产沙量随流域地貌的变化遵循不同的响应规律 ,而且视流域其它下垫面环境条件的均一程度 ,其相关程度和响应速率各不相同。受地面物质、植被、地貌发育阶段等流域其它下垫面环境条件的制约 ,除沟壑密度外 ,流域产沙量与流域地貌形态的关系都没有人们以前所预期的好。     

Drainage basin object-based method for regional-scale landform classification: a case study of loess area in China

Landform classification is one of the most important procedures in recognizing and dividing earth surface landforms. However, topographical homogeneity and differences in regional-scale landforms are often ignored by traditional pixel- and object-based landform classification methods based on digital elevation models (DEMs). In this work, a drainage basin object-based method for classifying regional-scale landforms is proposed. Drainage basins with least critical areas are first delineated from DEMs. Then, terrain derivatives of mean elevation, mean slope, drainage density, drainage depth, and terrain texture are employed to characterize the morphology of the drainage basins. Finally, a decision tree based on the topographical characteristics of the drainage basins is constructed and employed to determine the landform classification law. The experiment is validated in the landform classification of regional-scale loess areas in China. Results show that clear boundaries exist in different landforms at the regional scale. Landform type in a specific region shows significant topographical homogeneity under its specific regional geomorphological process. Classification accuracies are 87.3 and 86.3% for the field investigation and model validation, respectively. Spatial patterns of classified landforms and their proximity to sediment sources and other factors can be regarded as indicators of the evolutionary process of loess landform formation.     

对自然地理区划方法的认识与思考

在研习和继承前人区划研究工作与成果的基础上, 着重于自然地理区划方法论及其体系的探讨。首先, 深入阐述了自然地理区划的内涵, 认为: 自然地理区划既是区域划分的结 果, 也是区域划分的方法与过程, 同时还是认识地理特征和发现地理规律的一种科学方法。 第二, 假设性认为自然地理区划是客观存在的, 针对不同的区划目的和采用不同的区划原则 所形成了不同类型的自然地理区划, 如部门区划与综合区划、区域区划与类型区划等, 则构 成了对区划对象的多角度认识, 并且这些区划间存在内在联系, 具有一定的一致性和可转换性。第三, 在分析总结各种自然地理区划方案研究的基础上, 提出了包括区划本体、区划原 则、区划等级系统、区划模型和区划信息系统的自然地理区划范式, 其中自然地理区划原则、等级系统和区划模型构成了区划方法的核心, 并且通过区划模型, 实现区划原则、指标体系 和单位等级系统的综合。最后, 论文对自然地理区划信息系统研究所涉及的主要科学问题和 主要功能作了简要的说明和讨论, 并指出: 在地理空间单元理论的指导下, 可以实现在统一 的科学框架下的各种自然地理区划的集成, 并为开展综合区划研究提供可用的技术方法。     

基于SOFM神经网络模型的土地类型分区尝试——以青藏高原东部样带为例

基于土地类型自下而上的自然区划能够确立更加清晰的自然区划界线,是自然区划研究取得突破的关键。以青藏高原东部山区为研究区,采用神经网络模型与GIS技术,开展基于土地类型自下而上的区划研究。通过计算得到研究区地形综合指数、温暖指数、湿润指数、地被指数和水文指数5个自然指数指标,并将这些指标作为变量输入层,输入到建立的Self-Organizing Feature Maps神经网络模型中,对土地类型单元自下而上合并,生成青藏高原东部山区自然区划图,实现以土地类型单元为控制本底的定量化分区。结果表明:①可以将土地类型单元聚合成高原高寒稀疏植被区、高原高寒草甸草原区、高原高寒灌丛草甸区、高山深谷灌丛草甸区和高山深谷针叶林区5个自然带区域。②分区结果与中国生态地理区域划分的自然界线比较接近,相似性较高,分区结果较理想。     

大尺度分布式水文模型数字流域提取方法研究

构建大尺度分布式水文模型是当前大气水文模型耦合研究的一项重要内容。本文介绍一 种根据1km DEM 生成更大网格尺度DEM 数据, 同时可以保持流域河网信息并减缓高程、坡度 等地貌参数信息量衰减速度的有效方法———ZB算法。利用该方法和常规的网格平均法生成黄河 唐乃亥以上流域的5km、10km、15km 和20km 两套DEM 数据, 分别提取高程、坡度、地形指数、河 网密度、主河道长度、流域面积等流域特征参数, 并与1km DEM 提取的上述参数进行比较, 对两 种方法作出评价。结果显示, 随着网格尺度的增大, ZB 算法获得的DEM 数据可以保持河网的连 续性, 提取出合理的流域范围, 减缓地形信息量的衰减速度。该方法满足构建大尺度分布式水文 模型提取数字流域的需要。     

基于SOM的流域分类和无资料区径流模拟

无资料区的径流模拟问题是国内外水文研究的难点之一。基于相似流域的参数移植法是常用的解决方法之一,但如何判断相似流域是制约此类方法发展的难点。本文以滇池流域为例,采用自组织映射神经网络(SOM)和层次聚类分析(HCA)联合模式,选取16个流域物理特征为指标进行子流域分类,以确定相似流域。运用无分层的K-means分类的SOM法将整个滇池流域划分为7类具有水文属性的子流域组,分类情景与HCA基本一致,两者实现相互验证。采用HBV水文模型模拟子流域径流过程,并选择部分子流域进行组内参数移植交叉检验。结果显示,HBV模型可较好的模拟滇池流域径流过程;此外,子流域交叉检验结果优良,表明同组内参数可以相互移植。本文不仅为解决滇池流域无资料问题提供了可靠手段,而且由于SOM实现了高维流域特征可视化展示,有助于管理者全面、深入的把握滇池流域水文属性的空间分布特征,为进行水资源管理提供指导。     

Runoff Scaling in Large Rivers of the World

Runoff and precipitation scaling with respect to drainage area is analyzed for large river basins of the world, those with mean annual runoff in excess of 10 k³/yr. The usefulness of the specific runoff (runoff per unit drainage area, m/yr) to categorize runoff scaling laws across the complete spectrum of climatic and hydrologic conditions is evaluated. It is found that (1) runoff scales with drainage are in those river basins with specific runoff in excess of 0.15 m/yr (r² = 0.88); (2) runoff scaling with drainage area shows remarkably high statistical correlation (r²= 0.97) in river basins with specific runoff equal to or larger than 1.0 m/yr; (3) runoff does not Inc.rease with Inc.reasing drainage area in river basins with specific runoff below 0.15 m/yr, where no discernible statistical association was found between runoff and drainage area; and (4) precipitation depth (m/yr) is inversely proportional to drainage area raised to a fractional exponent in river basins with specific runoff in excess of 0.15 m/yr.     

塔里木河流域生态功能区划研究

生态功能区划为流域生态保护与修复提供重要的科学参考。而塔里木河流域由于缺少生态功能区划导致目前生态修复工程缺乏针对性,生态引水工程布局欠佳,以及生态修复和水资源管理的成效低下。为此,在对区域生态环境特征分析的基础上,将流域内不同区域的水文过程与生态结构、服务功能及生态环境敏感性相结合,依据生态功能区划原则、方法和指标体系,形成了塔里木河流域生态功能区划方案,即将该流域分为2个生态大区、4个生态区、28个生态亚区。研究成果不仅为流域实现水资源的优化配置和生态环境保护提供参考依据,也可为相似流域的生态功能区划研究提供示范和借鉴。     

Deriving drainage networks and catchment boundaries: a new methodology combining digital elevation data and environmental characteristics

Digital data on the position and characteristics of river networks and catchments are important for the analysis of pressures and impacts on water resources. GIS tools allow for the combined analysis of digital elevation data and environmental parameters in order to derive this kind of information. This article presents a new approach making use of medium-resolution digital elevation data (250-m grid cell size) and information on climate, vegetation cover, terrain morphology, soils and lithology to derive river networks and catchments over extended areas.In general, methods to extract channel networks at small scale use a constant threshold for the critical contributing area, independent of widely varying landscape conditions. As a consequence, the resulting drainage network does not reflect the natural variability in drainage density. To overcome this limitation, a classification of the landscape is proposed. The various data available are analysed in an integrated approach in order to characterise the terrain with respect to its ability to develop lower or higher drainage densities, resulting in five landscape types. For each landscape type, the slope–area relationship is then derived and the critical contributing area is determined. In the subsequent channel extraction, a dedicated critical contributing area threshold is used for each landscape type.The described methodology has been developed and tested for the territory of Italy. Results have been validated comparing the derived data with river and catchment data sets from other sources and at varying scales. Good agreement both in terms of river superimposition and drainage density could be demonstrated.     

Erosion, deposition and basin-wide variations in stream power and bed shear stress

Field data from four separate locations indicate that the rate at which river channel gradient decreases downstream is fundamentally different in areas of long-term erosion and deposition. Gradient ( S ) and distance from the drainage divide ( x ) are related such that S is proportional to x ^φ. In areas of deposition φ<−3, whilst in areas of erosion φ>−1.1. These differences produce downstream increases and decreases in stream power and bed shear stress which also coincide with areas of erosion and deposition. This is the first time that such a basin-wide coincidence has been demonstrated.
A strong positive correlation between stream power, bed shear stress and bedload transport rates has been clearly shown by previous empirical studies of loose-bed channels. It is proposed that large-scale patterns of erosion and deposition in alluvial basins result from downstream changes in bedload transport rates, produced by the observed trends in these two parameters. If this proposal is to be fully tested, further work is needed to assess the affects of downstream fining of bed material, short-term fluctuations in discharge and downstream exchange of particles between the suspended load and bedload.     

A global classification of river regimes

Global analysis of streamflow regimes is a neglected aspect of comparative hydrology. The regionalization of river regimes provides a useful tool for extrapolation of hydrological variables and for the identification of natural flow regimes where intensive river regulation has occurred. Previous studies at the global scale have used climatic characteristics to define regime types and the boundaries of climatic zones for extrapolation. These procedures have been made necessary by the lack of a suitable data set of stream flows with a global coverage. Such a data set has now been assembled for the first time and is used here to produce a classification of seasonal flow regimes based on a cluster analysis of the monthly mean flows expressed as percentages of the mean annual flow. Clustering was carried out using the within-group average method with cosine similarity measure after removing streams with no significant seasonal fluctuations. A set of algorithms in the form of a decision tree are presented. They can be used to place any stream into this classification and the process can be halted at any desired level of subdivision up to the 15-group level selected for global mapping in this paper. A preliminary world map of regime types is presented and is the first to be drawn on the basis of streamflow characteristics alone.     

土地覆被对黄河中游流域泥沙产生的影响

本在黄河中游地区选择了近60个水测站流域，流域面积从500～2500km^2，分别代表6种不同自然地理类型。运用遥感方法和专题地图，结合野外实地调查，在流域泥沙及植被、地面物质等数据采集的基础上，利用数理统计方法，建立了流域产沙量与植被、地面物质之间的定量关系。结果表明，植被和地面物质对流域产沙量有着十分重要的影响。流域产沙量与植被之间呈现相当好的非线性负相关关系，而与地面物质呈明显的线性正相关关系。流域产沙量随植被变化存在着二个临界值，一是当流域植被覆盖度等于30％时，另一是当植被覆盖度等于70％时。这一现象以往只是在试验小区或试验流域见到，而本的研究表明，类似的现象在天然河流流域也存在。多元回归表明，在影响流域产沙量诸因素中，植被的影响是最重要的，其次是地面物质。     

贺兰山水系流域数值地貌特征及其构造指示意义

基于Arcgis9.3与ASTER GDEM数据,提取了贺兰山两侧主要水系及其流域边界,根据河流及流域指标提取河流纵剖面、流域的Strahler曲线,并计算其面积高度积分值（Hypsometric Intergral）、河流纵剖面的凹度值（Concavity）。通过HI值、凹度值同河流落差、河流长度、流域面积之间相关性分析发现,后3种地貌参数与HI值、凹度值间的相关性较差。对比分析贺兰山两侧河流HI值及凹度值发现：贺兰山东侧北段活动性大于南段,西侧构造活动性分布规律不明显。结合9条河流所处流域的Strahler曲线、河流纵剖面形态和HI值、凹度值分析发现：汝箕沟及其以北贺兰山地区处于地形演化的老年期,汝箕沟以南贺兰山段处于均衡调整的壮年期。     

Interplay between lithospheric flexure and river transport in foreland basins

ABSTRACT Foreland basins form by lithospheric flexure under orogenic loading and are filled by surface transport of sediment. This work readdresses the interplay between these processes by integrating in a 3D numerical model: the mechanisms of thrust stacking, elastic flexural subsidence and sediment transport along the drainage network. The experiments show that both crustal tectonic deformation and vertical movements related to lithospheric flexure control and organise the basin-scale drainage pattern, competing with the nonlinear, unpredictable intrinsic nature of river network evolution. Drainage pattern characteristics are predicted that match those observed in many foreland basins, such as the axial drainage, the distal location of the main river within the basin, and the formation of large, long-lasting lacustrine systems. In areas where the river network is not well developed before the formation of the basin, these lithospheric flexural effects on drainage patterns may be enhanced by the role of the forebulge uplift as drainage divide. Inversely, fluvial transport modifies the flexural vertical movements differently than simpler transport models (e.g. diffusion): Rivers can drive erosion products far from a filled basin, amplifying the erosional rebound of both orogen and basin. The evolution of the sediment budget between orogen and basin is strongly dependent on this coupling between flexure and fluvial transport: Maximum sediment accumulations on the foreland are predicted for a narrow range of lithospheric elastic thickness between 15 and 40 km, coinciding with the T _e values most commonly reported for foreland basins.     

Assessing the soil-productive potential within river basins by using remotely sensed data

For an ecological characterization of river basins we suggest that the indicator of soil-productive potential should be used, which characterizes the ability of the natural or natural-anthropogenic ecosystem to reproduce under certain soil-climatic conditions the phytomass and which summarized long-term evidence for the productivity of vegetation cover, phytomass accumulation, some soil properties, and for the factors influencing the activity of production processes. The state of ecosystems can be assessed both from the summarizing values of soil-productive potential and from the parameters forming part thereof. For a soilproductive characterization of ecosystems at a particular time, it is proposed to use the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) which is determined from remote sensing data and reflects the overall state of soilvegetation cover. Results are presented from a comparative assessment of the soil-productive potential for small river basins that form part of the basin the Klyaz’ma river, a tributary of the Oka river. The indicators characterizing the soil-productive potential may be recommended for monitoring operations, a calculation of anthropogenic pressure within drainage basins, and for the organization of a rational land-use pattern.     

Factors influencing the presence or absence of tributary-junction fans in the Iberian Range, Spain

This paper analyses the factors which influence the presence or absence of tributary-junction fans in the Iberian Range, northern Spain. Two valleys were selected, both characterised by wide variations in lithology, altitude, land use and plant cover. Two groups of factors were studied: those related to the internal characteristics of the drainage basins, which particularly control sediment generation; and those related to the characteristics of the depositional area which control accommodation space and main river power. Among the internal factors, the development of alluvial fans was related to: (i) the capacity of the basin to yield large volumes of sediment, (ii) the occurrence of intense human pressure until recent times, a good indicator of sediment yield, and (iii) the capacity of the basin to quickly increase discharge during rainstorms (discharge density and torrentiality). It is suggested that the areas that were intensively cultivated in the past, and have therefore been affected by intense erosion, have played a decisive role on the development of alluvial fans. This would imply that many of these alluvial fans have a relatively recent origin, perhaps related to the beginning of a widespread deforestation. The basins without alluvial fans are characterised by relatively steep hillslope gradients (that is, slopes that never were subjected to historical cultivation), low drainage densities and dense forest and shrub cover, mostly coinciding with high altitude basins composed of quartzite and shale bedrocks. Regarding the external factors, the shape, size and longitudinal gradient of the main river to which the fans are tributary are the most relevant conditioning factors determining the development of alluvial fans.     

Spatially constrained clustering of ecological units to facilitate the design of integrated water monitoring networks in the St. Lawrence Basin

Water monitoring networks are generally classified into surface water, precipitation, groundwater or water quality monitoring networks. The design of these networks typically occurs in isolation from each other. We present a regionalization approach to identify homogeneous subregions of large basins that are suitable as areas for the optimization of an integrated water monitoring network. The study area, which comprises a portion of the St. Lawrence Basin, was spatially divided using ecological units. For each ecological unit, 21 attributes were derived including both environmental and hydrological indicators. A spatially constrained regionalization technique was applied to define the final regions. A scree plot was used to determine the number of regions. The sensitivity of the technique to the correlation in the attribute data was removed by utilizing principal component analysis to reduce correlation between attribute data. During regionalization, the component values were weighted by their proportion of the total variance explained. The four regions in the final configuration had areas from 19% to 31% of the total area, 63,597 km². For the St. Lawrence Basin, this approach is effective for defining homogeneous regions that can be used in further research on the optimization of integrated water monitoring networks. The approach is portable to other regions and can incorporate any set of attribute data that is valuable to the regionalization objective.     

中国区划工作的回顾与展望

在回顾国内外区划工作基础上,总结了我国区划工作各个发展阶段的特点,简单概述了我国区划工作中的方法论,讨论了区划工作中存在的若干问题。20世纪后半叶起,我国的区划研究进入系统研究和全面发展期。这期间我国区划工作的主要特点可归纳为:(1)众多区划方案的提出都有其深刻的历史背景,既是科学的总结,又与我国当时经济发展的水平和需求相关;(2)区划工作多是静态的,不能及时反映变化了的自然和人文要素;(3)现有区划工作未能将自然区划和经济区划很好地结合起来;(4)区划工作大多集中在陆地系统,对海洋系统的关注不够;(5)在区划方案的认定上,没有制度化的保障。为此,有必要在我国开展综合区划研究,并就编制我国综合区划方案中存在的一些关键科学问题进行探讨。