2D model of the crust and uppermost mantle along rift profile, Siberian craton

A two-dimensional model of the crust and uppermost mantle for the western Siberian craton and the adjoining areas of the Pur-Gedan basin to the north and Baikal Rift zone to the south is determined from travel time data from recordings of 30 chemical explosions and three nuclear explosions along the RIFT deep seismic sounding profile. This velocity model shows strong lateral variations in the crust and sub-Moho structure both within the craton and between the craton and the surrounding region. The Pur-Gedan basin has a 15-km thick, low-velocity sediment layer overlying a 25-km thick, high-velocity crystalline crustal layer. A paleo-rift zone with a graben-like structure in the basement and a high-velocity crustal intrusion or mantle upward exists beneath the southern part of the Pur-Gedan basin. The sedimentary layer is thin or non-existent and there is a velocity reversal in the upper crust beneath the Yenisey Zone. The Siberian craton has nearly uniform crustal thickness of 40–43 km but the average velocity in the lower crust in the north is higher (6.8–6.9 km/s) than in the south (6.6 km/s). The crust beneath the Baikal Rift zone is 35 km thick and has an average crustal velocity similar to that observed beneath the southern part of craton. The uppermost mantle velocity varies from 8.0 to 8.1 km/s beneath the young West Siberian platform and Baikal Rift zone to 8.1–8.5 km/s beneath the Siberian craton. Anomalous high Pn velocities (8.4–8.5 km/s) are observed beneath the western Tunguss basin in the northern part of the craton and beneath the southern part of the Siberian craton, but lower Pn velocities (8.1 km/s) are observed beneath the Low Angara basin in the central part of the craton. At about 100 km depth beneath the craton, there is a velocity inversion with a strong reflecting interface at its base. Some reflectors are also distinguished within the upper mantle at depth between 230 and 350 km.     

Saudi Arabian seismic-refraction profile: A traveltime interpretation of crustal and upper mantle structure

The crustal and upper mantle compressional-wave velocity structure across the southwestern Arabian Shield has been investigated by a 1000-km-long seismic refraction profile. The profile begins in Mesozoic cover rocks near Riyadh on the Arabian Platform, trends southwesterly across three major Precambrian tectonic provinces, traverses Cenozoic rocks of the coastal plain near Jizan, and terminates at the outer edge of the Farasan Bank in the southern Red Sea. More than 500 surveyed recording sites were occupied, and six shot points were used, including one in the Red Sea.Two-dimensional ray-tracing techniques, used to analyze amplitude-normalized record sections indicate that the Arabian Shield is composed, to first order, of two layers, each about 20 km thick, with average velocities of about 6.3 km/s and 7.0 km/s, respectively. West of the Shield-Red Sea margin, the crust thins to a total thickness of less than 20 km, beyond which the Red Sea shelf and coastal plain are interpreted to be underlain by oceanic crust.A major crustal inhomogeneity at the northeast end of the profile probably represents the suture zone between two crustal blocks of different composition. Elsewhere along the profile, several high-velocity anomalies in the upper crust correlate with mapped gneiss domes, the most prominent of which is the Khamis Mushayt gneiss. Based on their velocities, these domes may constitute areas where lower crustal rocks have been raised some 20 km. Two intracrustal reflectors in the center of the Shield at 13 km depth probably represent the tops of mafic intrusives.The Mohorovičić discontinuity beneath the Shield varies from a depth of 43 km and mantle velocity of 8.2 km/s in the northeast to a depth of 38 km and mantle velocity of 8.0 km/s depth in the southwest near the Shield-Red Sea transition. Two velocity discontinuities occur in the upper mantle, at 59 and 70 km depth.The crustal and upper mantle velocity structure of the Arabian Shield is interpreted as revealing a complex crust derived from the suturing of island arcs in the Precarnbrian. The Shield is currently flanked by the active spreading boundary in the Red Sea.     

Structural characteristics off Miyagi forearc region, the Japan Trench seismogenic zone, deduced from a wide-angle reflection and refraction study

The Japan Trench subduction zone, located east of NE Japan, has regional variation in seismicity. Many large earthquakes occurred in the northern part of Japan Trench, but few in the southern part. Off Miyagi region is in the middle of the Japan Trench, where the large earthquakes (M > 7) with thrust mechanisms have occurred at an interval of about 40 years in two parts: inner trench slope and near land. A seismic experiment using 36 ocean bottom seismographs (OBS) and a 12,000 cu. in. airgun array was conducted to determine a detailed, 2D velocity structure in the forearc region off Miyagi. The depth to the Moho is 21 km, at 115 km from the trench axis, and becomes progressively deeper landward. The P-wave velocity of the mantle wedge is 7.9–8.1 km/s, which is typical velocity for uppermost mantle without large serpentinization. The dip angle of oceanic crust is increased from 5–6° near the trench axis to 23° 150 km landward from the trench axis. The P-wave velocity of the oceanic uppermost mantle is as small as 7.7 km/s. This low-velocity oceanic mantle seems to be caused by not a lateral anisotropy but some subduction process. By comparison with the seismicity off Miyagi, the subduction zone can be divided into four parts: 1) Seaward of the trench axis, the seismicity is low and normal fault-type earthquakes occur associated with the destruction of oceanic lithosphere. 2) Beneath the deformed zone landward of the trench axis, the plate boundary is characterized as a stable sliding fault plain. In case of earthquakes, this zone may be tsunamigenic. 3) Below forearc crust where P-wave velocity is almost 6 km/s and larger: this zone is the seismogenic zone below inner trench slope, which is a plate boundary between the forearc and oceanic crusts. 4) Below mantle wedge: the rupture zones of thrust large earthquakes near land (e.g. 1978 off Miyagi earthquake) are located beneath the mantle wedge. The depth of the rupture zones is 30–50 km below sea level. From the comparison, the rupture zones of large earthquakes off Miyagi are limited in two parts: plate boundary between the forearc and oceanic crusts and below mantle wedge. This limitation is a rare case for subduction zone. Although the seismogenic process beneath the mantle wedge is not fully clarified, our observation suggests the two possibilities: earthquake generation at the plate boundary overridden by the mantle wedge without serpentinization or that in the subducting slab.     

Structure of young East Pacific Rise lithosphere from ambient noise correlation analysis of fundamental- and higher-mode Scholte-Rayleigh waves

Inter-station Green's functions estimated from ambient noise studies have been widely used to investigate crustal structure. However, most studies are restricted to continental areas and use fundamental-mode surface waves only. In this study, we recover inter-station surface (Scholte-Rayleigh) wave empirical Green's function (EGFs) of both the fundamental- and the first-higher mode using one year of continuous seismic noise records on the vertical component from 28 ocean bottom seismographs deployed in the Quebrada/Discovery/Gofar transform faults region on the East Pacific Rise. The average phase-velocity dispersion of the fundamental mode (period band 2–30 s) and the first-higher mode (period band 3–7 s) from all EGFs are used to invert for the 1-D average, shear-velocity structure in the crust and uppermost mantle using a model-space search algorithm. The preferred shear-velocity models reveal low velocities (4.29 km/s) between Moho and 25 km depth below sea-surface, suggesting the absence of a fast uppermost mantle lid in this young (0–2 Myr) oceanic region. An even more pronounced low-velocity zone, with shear velocities ～3.85 km/s, appears at a depth between 25–40 km below sea-surface. Along with previous results, our study indicates that the shear velocity in the uppermost oceanic mantle increases with increasing seafloor age, consistent with age-related lithospheric cooling.     

Shear-wave velocity structure of the south-eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula from Rayleigh wave analysis

In this study, we present the lithospheric structure of the south-eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula by means of a set of 2D images of shear velocity, for depths ranging from 0 to 50 km. This goal will be attained by means of the inversion of the Rayleigh wave dispersion. For it, the traces of 25 earthquakes occurred on the neighbouring of the study area, from 2001 to 2003, will be considered. These earthquakes have been registered by 11 broadband stations located on Iberia. All seismic events have been grouped in source zones to get an average dispersion curve for each source-station path. The dispersion curves have been measured for periods between 2 and 45 s, by combination of two digital filtering techniques: Multiple Filter Technique and Time Variable Filtering. The resulting set of source-station averaged dispersion curves has been inverted according to the generalized inversion theory, to get S-wave velocity models for each source-station path. Later, these models have been interpolated using the method of kriging, to obtain a 2D mapping of the S-wave velocity structure for the south-eastern part of Iberia. The results presented in this paper show that the techniques used here are a powerful tool to investigate the crust and upper mantle structure, through the dispersion analysis and its inversion to obtain shear velocity distributions with depth. By means of this analysis, principal structural features of the south-eastern part of Iberia, such as the existence of lateral and vertical heterogeneity in the whole study area, or the location of the Moho discontinuity at 30 km of depth (with an average S-velocity of uppermost mantle of 4.7 km/s), have been revealed. Other important structural features revealed by this analysis have been that the uppermost of Iberian massif shows higher velocity values than the uppermost of the Alpine domain, indicating that the massif is old and tectonically stable. The average velocity of the crust in Betic cordillera is of 3.5 km/s, while in the Iberian massif is 3.7 km/s. All these features are in agreement with the geology and other previous geophysical studies.     

Results of lithospheric studies from long-range profiles in Siberia

Several long-range seismic profiles, obtained during the last ten years in Siberia, show the complicated lithospheric structure of the Siberian platforms. The three component observations, conducted at distances up to 3000 km, made it possible to obtain information on P- and S-velocities in the crust, on P-velocity and Q-factor for the upper mantle, and on the seismic boundaries responsible for reflected, refracted and converted waves down to a depth of 400–700 km.The crustal models are typical of old platforms of Eurasia: the average thickness of 40 km, three layers with P-velocities 6.2, 6.5, 7.0 km/s and thicknesses of 10–15 km are distinguished. The depth to the M discontinuity varies from 45–50 km beneath the old Tunguss depression, to 35–40 km beneath the younger Vilyui basin. The most complicated Moho structure is observed in the boundary between the West Siberian and the Siberian platforms.A strong inhomogeneity of P-velocity models was revealed for the upper mantle. The horizontal inhomogeneities are more larger in the uppermost mantle to depths of 80–100 km, where P-velocities vary from 8.0–8.2 km/s beneath the young West Siberian plate to 8.4–8.6 km/s beneath some blocks of the Siberian craton. The fine vertical inhomogeneity was studied with reflections correlated after computer processing of seismograms. They outlined several low-velocity layers 20–50 km thick. The layers were characterized by low Q as well.Intensive waves were recorded from the transition zone between the upper and lower mantle. The top of the zone is nearly horizontal in the area; its depth is 400 ± 25 km. The bottom of the zone lies at about 700 km.     

Crust–upper mantle seismic velocity structure across Southeastern China

One in-line wide-angle seismic profile was conducted in 1990 in the course of the Southeastern China Continental Dynamics project aimed at the study of the contact between the Cathaysia block and the Yangtze block. This 380-km-long profile extended in NW–SE direction from Tunxi, Anhui Province, to Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province. Five in-line shots were fired and recorded at seismic stations with spacing of about 3 km along the recording line. We have used two-dimensional ray tracing to model P- and S-wave arrivals and provide constraints on the velocity structure of the upper crust, middle crust, lower crust, Moho discontinuity, and the top part of the lithospheric mantle. P-wave velocity, S-wave velocity and V_P/V_S ratio are mapped. The crust is 36-km thick on average, albeit it gradually thins from the northwest end to the southeast end (offshore) of the profile. The average crustal velocity is 6.26 km/s for P-waves but 3.6 km/s for S-waves. A relatively narrow low-velocity layer of about 4 km of thickness, with P- and S-wave velocities of 6.2 km/s and 3.5 km/s, respectively, marks the bottom of the middle crust at a depth of 23-km northwest and 17-km southeast. At the crust–mantle transition, the P- and S-wave velocity change quickly from 7.4 to 7.8 km/s (northwest) and 8.0 to 8.2 km/s (southeast) and from 3.9 to 4.2 km/s (northwest) and 3.9 to 4.5 km/s (southeast), respectively. This result implies a lateral contrast in the upper mantle velocity along the 140 km sampled by the profile approximately. The average V_P/V_S ratio ranges from 1.68–1.8 for the upper crust to 1.75 for the middle and 1.75–1.85 for lower crust. With the interpretation of the wide-angle seismic data, Jiangshan–Shaoxin fault is considered as the boundary between the Yangtze and the Cathaysia block.     

Upper mantle structure of the Northern Eurasia from peaceful nuclear explosion data

Several long-range seismic profiles were carried out in Russia with Peaceful Nuclear Explosions (PNE). The data from 25 PNEs recorded along these profiles were used to compile a 3-D upper mantle velocity model for the central part of the Northern Eurasia. 2-D crust and upper mantle models were also constructed for all profiles using a common methodology for wavefield interpretation. Five basic boundaries were traced over the study area: N1 boundary (velocity level, V = 8.35 km/s; depth interval, D = 60–130 km), N2 (V = 8.4 km/s; D = 100–140 km), L (V = 8.5 km/s; D = 180–240 km) and H (V = 8.6 km/s; D = 300–330 km) and structural maps were compiled for each boundary. Together these boundaries describe a 3-D upper mantle model for northern Eurasia. A map characterised the velocity distribution in the uppermost mantle down to a depth of 60 km is also presented. Mostly horizontal inhomogeneity is observed in the uppermost mantle, and the velocities range from the average 8.0–8.1 km/s to 8.3–8.4 km/s in some blocks of the Siberian Craton. At a depth of 100–200 km, the local high velocity blocks disappear and only three large anomalies are observed: lower velocities in West Siberia and higher velocities in the East-European platform and in the central part of the Siberian Craton. In contrast, the depths to the H boundary are greater beneath the craton and lower beneath in the West Siberian Platform. A correlation between tectonics, geophysical fields and crustal structure is observed. In general, the old and cold cratons have higher velocities in the mantle than the young platforms with higher heat flows.Structural peculiarities of the upper mantle are difficult to describe in form of classical lithosphere–asthenosphere system. The asthenosphere cannot be traced from the seismic data; in contrary the lithosphere is suggested to be rheologically stratified. All the lithospheric boundaries are not simple discontinuities, they are heterogeneous (thin layering) zones which generate multiphase reflections. Many of them may be a result of fluids concentrated at some critical P–T conditions which produce rheologically weak zones. The most visible rheological variations are observed at depths of around 100 and 250 km.     

Structure of the uppermost mantle from long-range seismic observations in southern Germany and the Rhinegraben area

The crustal structure has been determined in the area between the Lorraine, the Bohemian massif and the northern Alps with considerable detail in recent years. But up to now little has been known about the velocity—depth structure of the uppermost mantle in this area. The situation changed recently when two recent seismic events near the northern and southern end of the Rhinegraben rift system were recorded to distances of 400 km. The explosions at the westernmost shotpoint of the international alpine refraction profile in 1975 were also observed in the Rhinegraben area up to the same distance. Earlier refraction seismic experiments between Steinbrunn near Basle and Boehmischbruck at the western border of the Bohemian massif also reach distances of 400 km. All these data lead to the rather high P-wave velocities of 8.5–8.6 km/s at depths between 40 and 50 km. These velocities are considerably higher than the average velocities of 8.2 km/s under other areas of western and central Europe, as for example the Bretagne in northwestern France and the North German Plain. There are indications of a minor velocity inversion in the uppermost mantle between Steinbrunn and Boehmischbruck. From the dispersion of surface waves there is good evidence that the regional high P-wave velocities are limited to a certain depth range only. This indicates rather pronounced lateral variations of the velocity—depth structure in the uppermost mantle of central Europe.     

Imaging of Vp, Vs, and Poisson’s ratio anomalies beneath Kyushu, southwest Japan: Implications for volcanism and forearc mantle wedge serpentinization

We determine detailed 3-D V_p and V_s structures of the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the Kyushu Island, southwest Japan, using a large number of arrival times from local earthquakes. From the obtained V_p and V_s models, we further calculate Poisson’s ratio images beneath the study area. By using this large data set, we successfully image the 3-D seismic velocity and Poisson’s ratio structures beneath Kyushu down to a depth of 150 km with a more reliable spatial resolution than previous studies. Our results show very clear low V_p and low V_s anomalies in the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the northern volcanoes, such as Abu, Kujyu and Unzen. Low-velocity anomalies are seen in the mantle beneath most other volcanoes. In contrast, there are no significant low-velocity anomalies in the crust or in the upper mantle between Aso and Kirishima. The subducting Philippine Sea slab is imaged generally as a high-velocity anomaly down to a depth of 150 km with some patches of normal to low seismic wave velocities. The Poisson’s ratio is almost normal beneath most volcanoes. The crustal seismicity is distributed in both the high- and low-velocity zones, but most distinctly in the low Poisson’s ratio zone. A high Poisson’s ratio region is found in the forearc crustal wedge above the slab in the junction area with Shikoku and Honshu; this high Poisson’s ratio could be caused by fluid-filled cracks induced by dehydration from the Philippine Sea slab. The Poisson’s ratio is normal to low in the forearc mantle in middle-south Kyushu. This is consistent with the absence of low-frequency tremors, and may indicate that dehydration from the subducting crust is not vigorous in this region.     

利用接收函数方法研究哀牢山剪切带南段金矿区的岩石圈结构: 岩石圈减薄与岩浆通道

印藏碰撞导致了青藏高原内部及周边地区形成巨量储量的成矿带。虽然这一地区的成矿研究非常深入,但仍然需要 完善对“源-运-储”的综合研究,需要从地壳上地幔结构角度对成矿源的起源进行探索。位于哀牢山剪切带南段的大坪- 长安金矿具有幔源成因迹象,该文研究了该矿区及邻区的岩石圈结构,从深部研究成矿来源。通过接收函数方法获得的研 究区剖面,揭示壳幔边界（Moho） 深度在30~40 km,但在金矿矿区下表现为Moho转换震相强烈横向不连续,表现为东西 两侧约3~5 km的下沉。岩石圈软流圈边界（LAB） 的转换震相揭示,研究区的岩石圈厚度为60~80 km,有效约束了研究区 强烈岩石圈减薄后剩余岩石圈的厚度。金矿区西侧思茅块体的岩石圈厚度最薄,位于前人层析成像工作揭示上地幔顶部一 低速体的上方。金矿区下方的岩石圈厚度为~80 km且LAB的转换震相表现为强烈的横向不连续。金矿下Moho和LAB的横 向不连续暗示了金矿区下方存在岩石圈尺度的岩浆通道,即软流圈的地幔物质可以较快速地到达浅表。笔者认为,研究区 的岩石圈结构支持由俯冲驱动的幔源成矿模型,但大坪-长安金矿矿区下的岩石圈尺度的岩浆通道的形成与哀牢山剪切带 的剪切变形直接相关。由Burma俯冲导致的地幔物质上涌对该通道的形成贡献有限。     

Upper mantle roots of Siberian craton basement structures along the Rift DSS profile

We investigate the upper mantle velocity structure through processing first arrival data from peaceful nuclear explosions. The reported 2D model has been obtained by ray tracing for a spherical Earth, unlike the classical plane-approximation approach with subsequent spherical symmetry corrections, which is not always applicable to a laterally heterogeneous subsurface. The upper mantle velocity highs and lows imaged to 200–220 km depths show obvious correlation with major structures of the craton basement. Namely, low-velocity zones are observed beneath basins, the largest (to 8.0–8.1 km/s) under the Vendian–Early Cambrian Sayan–Yenisei syneclise. A discontinuous high-velocity layer (8.6–8.7 km/s) at depths between 150 and 240 km is underlain by a zone of lower velocity (8.50–8.55 km/s) down to the 410 km discontinuity, where the velocity at the top of the transition zone is 9.4–9.5 km/s.     

Structure of the crust and uppermost mantle of the Yanshan Belt and adjacent regions at the northeastern boundary of the North China Craton from Rayleigh Wave Dispersion Analysis

We have used Rayleigh wave dispersion analysis and inversion to produce a high resolution S-wave velocity imaging profile of the crust and uppermost mantle structure beneath the northeastern boundary regions of the North China Craton (NCC). Using waveform data from 45 broadband NCISP stations, Rayleigh wave phase velocities were measured at periods from 10 to 48 s and utilized in subsequent inversions to solve for the S-wave velocity structure from 15 km down to 120 km depth. The inverted lower crust and uppermost mantle velocities, about 3.75 km/s and 4.3 km/s on average, are low compared with the global average. The Moho was constrained in the depth range of 30–40 km, indicating a typical crustal thickness along the profile. However, a thin lithosphere of no more than 100 km was imaged under a large part of the profile, decreasing to only ~ 60 km under the Inner Mongolian Axis (IMA) where an abnormally slow anomaly was observed below 60 km depth. The overall structural features of the study region resemble those of typical continental rift zones and are probably associated with the lithospheric reactivation and tectonic extension widespread in the eastern NCC during Mesozoic–Cenozoic time. Distinctly high velocities, up to ~ 4.6 km/s, were found immediately to the south of the IMA beneath the northern Yanshan Belt (YSB), extending down to > 100-km depth. The anomalous velocities are interpreted as the cratonic lithospheric lid of the region, which may have not been affected by the Mesozoic–Cenozoic deformation process as strongly as other regions in the eastern NCC. Based on our S-wave velocity structural image and other geophysical observations, we propose a possible lithosphere–asthenosphere interaction scenario at the northeastern boundary of the NCC. We speculate that significant undulations of the base of the lithosphere, which might have resulted from the uneven Mesozoic–Cenozoic lithospheric thinning, may induce mantle flows concentrating beneath the weak IMA zone. The relatively thick lithospheric lid in the northern YSB may serve as a tectonic barrier separating the on-craton and off-craton regions into different upper mantle convection systems at the present time.     

Evidence of a partial melt zone beneath Stromboli volcano (Italy) from inversion of teleseismic receiver functions

Teleseismic body waves from broadband seismic stations are used to investigate the crustal and uppermost mantle structure of Stromboli volcano through inversion of the receiver functions (RFs). First, we computed RFs in the frequency domain using a multiple-taper spectral correlation technique. Then, the non-linear neighbourhood algorithm was applied to estimate the seismic shear wave velocity of the crust and uppermost mantle and to define the main seismic velocity discontinuities. The stability of the inversion solution was tested using a range of initial random seeds and model parameterizations. A shallow Moho, present at depth of 14.8 km, is evidence of a thinned crust beneath Stromboli volcano. However, the most intriguing and innovative result is a low S velocity layer in the uppermost mantle, below 32 km. The low S velocity layer suggests a possible partial melt region associated with the volcanism, as also recently supported by tomographic studies and petrological estimations.     

Seismic investigations along the European Geotraverse and its surroundings in Central Europe

Since 1975 several high-resolution seismic-refraction and reflection surveys have been carried out in western Germany to investigate the structure of the Earth's crust and uppermost mantle. The investigation culminated in the seismic-refraction survey along the 825 km long central part of the European Geotraverse (EGT) in 1986. This contribution summarizes the main results of the more recent crustal investigations along and around the EGT. The internal crustal structure throughout the area of the Variscides is very complex and changes laterally considerably. Distinct crustal blocks differing in their internal structure can be assigned to geologically defined units of the Variscan and Caledonian orogeny. In spite of local deviations, in general a more or less transparent and low-velocity upper crust contrasts with a highly reflective lower crust. A subdivision of upper and lower crust by a well-defined boundary (Conrad discontinuity) is not always seen. Towards the Alps the average velocity of the lower crust is as low as 6.2 km s^?1, in contrast to the area north of the Swabian Jura where the velocities above Moho vary between 6.8 and 7.2 km s^?1. In Northern Germany, the Elbe line separates the lower crust into two regions with 6.4 km s^?1 average velocity in the south and 6.9 km s^?1 in the north. The total crustal thickness under the Variscan part of Germany is fairly constant between 28 and 30 km, except under the Rhine Graben area with 25–26 km and beneath the central part of the Rhenish Massif where an anomalous crustal thickening to 37 km is observed. Under northern Germany the Moho rises to about 26 km depth and the data indicate at least one fault-like step of 1 km before the crust thickens toward the Ringkobing-Fyn basement high. The synthesis of seismic velocity structure and petrological information from xenolith studies allows us to propose a mafic composition for the deeper levels of the crust and uppermost mantle which may be valid at least for the central part of the Variscan crust along the European Geotraverse in Central Europe.     

VRANCEA99—the crustal structure beneath the southeastern Carpathians and the Moesian Platform from a seismic refraction profile in Romania

The VRANCEA99 seismic refraction experiment is part of an international and multidisciplinary project to study the intermediate depth earthquakes of the Eastern Carpathians in Romania. As part of the seismic experiment, a 300-km-long refraction profile was recorded between the cities of Bacau and Bucharest, traversing the Vrancea epicentral region in NNE–SSW direction.

The results deduced using forward and inverse ray trace modelling indicate a multi-layered crust. The sedimentary succession comprises two to four seismic layers of variable thickness and with velocities ranging from 2.0 to 5.8 km/s. The seismic basement coincides with a velocity step up to 5.9 km/s. Velocities in the upper crystalline crust are 5.9–6.2 km/s. An intra-crustal discontinuity at 18–31 km divides the crust into an upper and a lower layer. Velocities within the lower crust are 6.7–7.0 km/s. Strong wide-angle PmP reflections indicate the existence of a first-order Moho at a depth of 30 km near the southern end of the line and 41 km near the centre. Constraints on upper mantle seismic velocities (7.9 km/s) are provided by Pn arrival times from two shot points only. Within the upper mantle a low velocity zone is interpreted. Travel times of a PLP reflection define the bottom of this low velocity layer at a depth of 55 km. The velocity beneath this interface must be at least 8.5 km/s.

Geologic interpretation of the seismic data suggests that the Neogene tectonic convergence of the Eastern Carpathians resulted in thin-skinned shortening of the sedimentary cover and in thick-skinned shortening in the crystalline crust. On the autochthonous cover of the Moesian platform several blocks can be recognised which are characterised by different lithological compositions. This could indicate a pre-structuring of the platform at Mesozoic and/or Palaeozoic times with a probable active involvement of the Intramoesian and the Capidava–Ovidiu faults. Especially the Intramoesian fault is clearly recognisable on the refraction line. No clear indications of the important Trotus fault in the north of the profile could be found. In the central part of the seismic line a thinned lower crust and the low velocity zone in the uppermost mantle point to the possibility of crustal delamination and partial melting in the upper mantle.     

Seismic velocity discontinuities in the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the Kanto district, central Japan, identified from receiver function imaging and repeating earthquake activity

We constructed vertical cross-sections of depth-converted receiver function images to estimate the seismic velocity structure of the crust and uppermost mantle beneath the Kanto district, central Japan. Repeating earthquake data for the plate boundary were also used to estimate geometries of the subducting Philippine Sea plate and the subducting Pacific plate. As a result, we present images of some major seismic discontinuities. The upper boundary of the Pacific plate dips to the northwest in northern Kanto and to the west–southwest in southern Kanto with some undulations. On the other hand, the upper boundary of the Philippine Sea plate as a whole dips to the northwest. However, it is concave to the northeast in the southern Boso peninsula. We suggest that the low-velocity mantle wedge may be indicated on the top of both subducting plates. Plate thickness gradually decreases to the northeast. The northeastern end of the Philippine Sea plate is interpreted to be at depths of 45–90 km. The Moho discontinuity in the overriding plate is deeper than 25 km in the northern Kanto. It contacts the subducting Philippine Sea plate in the southwestern part near 35.8°N.     

Synthetic seismogram and surface wave constraints on crustal models of Spitsbergen

Seismic refraction data collected on Spitsbergen in 1978 are used to obtain a crustal model assuming plane horizontal layering. The observed travel-times and wave forms are compared with those of synthetic seismograms computed for various published crustal models. The more detailed models adequately explain some, but not all, of the features of the synthetics. These models are adjusted, utilizing travel times and wave-form amplitudes until a satisfactory fit is achieved. The best-fitting model consists of a 4-layer crust having thicknesses of 4.1, 10.0 7.4 and 5.8 km and compressional velocities of 4.65, 6.21, 6.30 and 6.65 km/sec with increasing depth. The uppermost mantle has a velocity of 7.90 km/sec. A comparison of observed and synthetic P_n waveforms supports the existence of a thin low-velocity zone beginning at a depth of about 5 km beneath the Moho boundary. An inversion of seismic surface wave group velocity data yields a shear-wave model which is compatible with the compressional wave model.     

Seismological features of island arc crust as inferred from recent seismic expeditions in Japan

Crustal studies within the Japanese islands have provided important constraints on the physical properties and deformation styles of the island arc crust. The upper crust in the Japanese islands has a significant heterogeneity characterized by large velocity variation (5.5–6.1 km/s) and high seismic attenuation (Qp=100–400 for 5–15 Hz). The lateral velocity change sometimes occurs at major tectonic lines. In many cases of recent refraction/wide-angle reflection profiles, a “middle crust” with a velocity of 6.2–6.5 km/s is found in a depth range of 5–15 km. Most shallow microearthquakes are concentrated in the upper/middle crust. The velocity in the lower crust is estimated to be 6.6–7.0 km/s. The lower crust often involves a highly reflective zone with less seismicity, indicating its ductile rheology. The uppermost mantle is characterized by a low Pn velocity of 7.5–7.9 km/s. Several observations on PmP phase indicate that the Moho is not a sharp boundary with a distinct velocity contrast, but forms a transition zone from the upper mantle to the lower crust. Recent seismic reflection experiments revealed ongoing crustal deformations within the Japanese islands. A clear image of crustal delamination obtained for an arc–arc collision zone in central Hokkaido provides an important key for the evolution process from island arc to more felsic continental crust. In northern Honshu, a major fault system with listric geometry, which was formed by Miocene back arc spreading, was successfully mapped down to 12–15 km.     

Mohorovičić discontinuity beneath Fennoscandia and adjacent parts of the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea

A preliminary contour map showing the Mohorovičić discontinuity (Moho) beneath Fennoscandia, adjacent parts of the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea has been compiled on the basis of published information from deep seismic soundings.The Moho contour map shows a 10 km thick crust beneath the investigated basin-region of the Norwegian Sea. It seems that the Vøring Plateau has at least in part a continental structure even if the Moho-depth is only 15 km. A shallow Moho (28–30 km) all along the Norwegian coast is a well established feature. A good correlation between the surface elevation of the mountain range running through Norway and parts of Sweden and the depth of the Moho is also well established. The Gulf of Bothnia is a region of a great Mono-depression.