The border as an engine for mobility and spatial integration: A study of commuting in a Swedish–Norwegian context

The purpose of the study was to analyse how cross-border commuting differed from intranational commuting in Sweden, and how cross-border mobilities affected spatial integration. The authors analysed patterns and spatial flows of cross-border commuting by comparing them with characteristics of intranational commuting. In the article, they explore the assumption that the border constitutes an ‘engine’ for work-related mobility, which affects processes of spatial integration in cross-border areas. The empirical material comprised data from surveys of commuting from the Swedish county of Värmland to Norway and commuting within Värmland. The findings showed that cross-border commuting shared common features with intranational commuting, including how the frequency of commuting was dependent on distance. The motives for commuting differed, and the reasons for working in Norway were economic rather than professional. In terms of spatial integration, cross-border commuting was mainly one-directional, from Sweden to Norway, while leisure mobility and migration tended to be in the opposite direction. The authors conclude that the border region is characterised by integration through specialisation, which involves a permanent state of ‘transient’ mobility. Thus, a win-win situation can be distinguished, in which the border serves as a resource and an ‘engine’ for cross-border integration, mobility and economic activities.     

Outmigration patterns in development transition of rural areas

Using a broadened concept of migration, which includes circulatory migration and commuting, this paper maintains that the patterns of outmigration vary a great deal when the level of development of a rural area is treated as an independent variable. This study uses a stratified conditional sample of 192 households selected from 3 areas: 53 households from a low developed (LDL) area, 56 from a medium (MDL), and 83 from a high (HDL). Data were collected by personal observation, interview, and genealogical methods at both the household and individual level. The households are divided into 3 main categories: 1) non-migrating, 2) commuting only, and 3) migrating (which is further divided into migrating within and migrating outside the boundaries of the district). Results show that 1) 37.51% of household members neither commute nor have migrated outside the village; 2) using the narrow definition of migration, only 10% of males over age 15 migrate, while including commuting in the definition increases the percentage to 40; 3) proportions of non-migrating households decrease from 58.4% for the LDL, to 35.7% for the MDL, to 25.3% for the HDL area; 4) the proportion of commuting only households increases from 26.4% for the LDL, to 35.7% to the MDL, and 55.4% for the HDL area; 5) 15.2% of households in the LDL, 28.6% in the MDL, and 19.3% in the HDL area experience a permanent change in residence; 6) as development accelerates, the overall volume of outmigration increases; 7) the flow of migration from rural to rural areas is mostly limited to the MDL area, while cityward migration increasingly occurs on both LDL and HDL areas; 8) the median age of commuters increases with rising levels of development; and 9) almost all migrants from the LDL area are employed in low prestige occupations, most from the HDL area have higher prestige jobs, and those from the MDL area have both high and low prestige jobs.     

Longer distance commuting as a substitute for migration in Britain: a review of trends,issues and implications

"Drawing on analyses of commuting data from secondary sources as well as on selected results from a research project on long-distance commuting in Britain, this article investigates the extent to which, and why, households may choose to substitute longer distance commuting for migration. Reasons for long-distance weekly commuting, and associated advantages and disadvantages from individual, household and employer perspectives, are outlined. The evidence points to increasing complexity in home and working lives, with important implications for housing, transport and human resource management policies, as well as for family life."     

重庆市公共租赁住房社区居民的职住空间匹配

居住与就业间的空间组织是城市空间结构的重要组成要素之一,国外自20 世纪60 年代提出后引发了大量关于弱势群体居住和就业空间机会及其关系的实证研究。近年来在中国城市快速空间重构的背景下,中低收入群体的职住分离现象也引起广泛关注。运用职住空间错位理论,以重庆市主城区公共租赁住房社区为案例进行研究,对541 份有效问卷的统计分析表明:① 公共租赁住房居民搬迁前通勤距离与通勤时间的均值分别从6.5 km与32 min,增加到搬迁后的15 km与52 min;② Logit回归分析表明,群体类型对公共租赁住房居民通勤时间差异影响最为显著,年龄与居民通勤时间呈负相关关系,性别与年龄对通勤时间产生较显著影响。③ 公共租赁住房供应的政策性因素造成了被动迁移型空间不匹配现象,是其住户的区位选择与主要就业场所不匹配而引发的,因此需要深入研究公共租赁住房合理的空间布局方案和实施途径,尽可能将公共租赁住房区位规划在内城。     

郊区化进程中北京城市内部迁居及相关空间行为——基于千份问卷调查的分析

利用千份问卷调查资料 ,研究居住郊区化进程中北京城市居民的迁居行为、第二住宅与季节性郊区化 ,以及包括通勤、出行和购物等在内的相关空间行为。研究表明 ,北京本地城市化和近郊化的特征明显 ,单位福利分房和原居住地拆迁是居民迁居的主要原因 ,居民职住分离现象十分普遍 ,传统单位制下职住合一的空间格局已被打破 ;城市第二住宅多用于商业出租等用途 ,表现出一定程度的季节性郊区化特点 ,但尚未达到规模集聚的程度 ;在居住郊区化的进程中 ,北京城市居民的通勤、出行和购物等空间行为均有一定程度的变化。     

多中心空间结构的通勤效率——上海和杭州的实证研究

依据多中心空间结构的理想通勤模式构建通勤距离分布的理论模型,将实测结果与理论模型做比较,检验通勤效率。研究以上海和杭州为对象,发现：① 多中心空间结构确实有助于缩短通勤距离,但随着与就业中心距离增加,就业中心对缩短通勤距离的正效应逐渐减弱;② 社会经济发展水平更高的上海,其多中心空间结构的通勤效率比杭州发挥得更好。研究讨论了城市规模、多中心的实施时间、住房市场等对通勤效率的影响：上海的多中心空间结构发展更加成熟、租赁房源比例更高,为维持城市正常运转必须有更高效的交通组织,且居民确实经历了更长时间、有更多住房选择来调整职住空间以缩短通勤距离;杭州的城市功能尚处在完善中,多中心空间结构的通勤效率还未完全发挥作用。     

转型期广州市城市居民职住空间与通勤行为研究

以广州市2001年、2005年和2010年大型家庭社会调查为基础,研究了广州市城市居民职住空间和通勤行为的演化,从微观层面分析城市居民职住空间分离和城市通勤行为的影响因素。结果表明：2000年以来广州市城市居民职住空间分离趋势较为明显,但通勤成本仍然是城市居民居住区位或工作地选择过程的重要考虑因素;通过使用职住空间平衡测量指标来测度城市职住空间平衡的空间差异,研究结果显示：内圈层存在最为严重的职住空间失衡,而随着近年来广州市产业和居住郊区化进程的突飞猛进,城市郊区的职住空间失衡状况有明显改善,职住空间平衡率大幅度提升。从通勤行为来看,广州市城市居民使用传统的通勤方式比重最高,家庭收入、文化程度、住房产权和性质状况、工作单位性质等城市居民通勤行为显著影响通勤方式。     

Regulating migration to Australia and back to the Philippines: Applying a ‘diaspora strategies’ framework

This paper examines circular labour migration between Australia and the Philippines by bringing Australian immigration policies and Philippine diaspora strategies under the same analytical framework. An extensive Philippine bureaucracy regulates migrants at each stage of the circular migration cycle, and as a sending state it has an interest in migrants staying temporarily in host countries such as Australia. The requirement to return home at the end of an overseas work contract compels migrants to remain attached to the sending state, their homeland, and return subsequently. However, Australia is allowing a route for temporary migrants to apply for permanent residency while in the host country. This has implications for sending states that rely on migrant ties to the homeland. The paper argues that analysing the intersections between the themes of migration, development and diaspora strategies reveals the multiple meanings of temporariness during migration and in migration studies. It questions whether associating temporariness with precariousness and marginalization is an accurate representation of the complex conditions underpinning circular labour migration.     

基于结构方程模型的南京市就业者通勤行为特征对健康的影响研究

通勤是城市就业者日常工作所必须面对的问题,长距离、长时间通勤以及机动化通勤方式带来的健康问题引起了国内外学者们的广泛关注。论文基于南京市居民身体活动及健康状况问卷调查数据,构建结构方程模型分析就业者通勤距离、通勤时间及通勤模式三者的关系及其对心理健康、身体健康以及健康行为的影响。研究发现：① 通勤距离对机动车通勤模式与通勤时间存在显著的正向直接效应,同时通勤距离对通勤时间存在显著的正向间接效应。② 在心理健康影响方面,通勤距离、通勤时间及机动车通勤模式对邻里关系有显著的负向直接效应,同时通勤距离与通勤模式对邻里关系还存在显著的负向间接效应;在身体健康影响方面,通勤距离降低了就业者超重或肥胖的发生概率,但增加了就业者选择机动车通勤模式的可能性,从而间接增加了就业者患慢性疾病的风险;在健康行为影响方面,通勤距离、通勤时间与睡眠时间显著负相关,机动车通勤模式对睡眠时间产生负向间接影响,与是否做家务显著负相关,与是否散步呈现显著的正相关。③ 通勤行为特征对健康的影响因就业者社会经济属性不同而存在差异,女性、年龄较大以及收入较低的就业者通勤行为特征对健康的影响更为显著。基于研究结果,提出优化城市职住空间、减少通勤时耗,降低小汽车依赖、促进积极通勤来提高就业者身体活动量,并为特殊群体的通勤创造更加有利的条件,进而提升其健康水平。     

Pendulum population migration and the formation of settlement systems

Systems of circular migration existing in the USSR are described. The role that such migration plays in linking settlement systems is noted, and the influence of city size on migration is discussed.     

大城市郊区居民通勤模式对健康的影响研究——以北京天通苑为例

中国大城市的郊区化加剧了居民的职住分离与长距离通勤,进而影响其健康状况。本文以北京典型近郊巨型居住区天通苑为案例,研究城市郊区居民通勤模式对健康的影响。天通苑全职就业者通勤空间总体上呈现以天通苑为中心不均匀的放射状格局;根据通勤距离、时间与方式,将天通苑全职就业者的通勤模式划分为短距离-积极-公交通勤、中长距离-公交-小汽车通勤、超长距离-公交-小汽车通勤3种模式。本文借助二项Logistic回归模型,在控制其他社会经济属性的前提下验证不同通勤模式对生理健康和心理健康2个维度6个指标的影响。研究发现,整体上通勤模式对睡眠质量差、经常请病假、疲惫不堪、压力大等健康风险的影响均呈现出倒“U”形的趋势,表明适度通勤可能有利于健康,而过长通勤却不利于健康,尤其是超长距离-公交-小汽车通勤模式显著地增加了睡眠质量差、经常请病假、压力大等的健康风险。最后,本文指出改善大城市郊区职住关系不仅意味着城市运行效率的提升,更意味着居民健康状况及生活质量的提升。     

PATTERNS OF SPATIAL DISPERSION IN METROPOLITAN COMMUTING

The simultaneous impact of residential and employment decentralization in the form of multinucleations on patterns of commuting concentration and dispersion is examined for the Washington metropolitan area with 1980 data. Because of the area's generally white-collar labor force, the impact of segregated occupational groups is minimized and it is possible to examine strictly the spatial dimensions of commuting dispersion. Commuting becomes increasingly more dispersed from the center of the area to about 12 miles outward. Beyond that point, the patterns of commuting become considerably more complex, responding to a wide range of sizes of employment in a widely dispersed pattern of nucleations. In some sectors, commuting dispersion remains somewhat constant. In one sector, commuting patterns revert to some level of concentration, possibly responding to a somewhat unique situation of employment concentration along a corridor. These findings contribute to the recognition that tomorrow's transit structure cannot rely on its traditional form, but must become more selective.     

Commuting behaviour and urban form: a longitudinal study of a polycentric urban region in Denmark

This paper is an empirical investigation of the relation between urban form and commuting behaviour in a polycentric urban region. It explores to what extent urban form and location variables help to explain commuting time, distance and mode based on an empirical case, East Jutland, which is a polycentric urban region in Denmark. Data from the National Transport Survey of Denmark were used for this quantitative analysis and two time periods were selected to highlight any potential changes over time. Empirical findings indicate that urban form and location variables help to explain the three selected aspects of commuting. However, urban form variables have greater explanatory power in explaining commuting modes than commuting time and commuting distance. No general trends in commuting were detectable from the data. Finally, the empirical findings revealed specificities of the case study. For instance, two of the important findings are that the distance to the closest urban centre is an important factor which affects the three selected aspects of commuting, while the distance from the residence to the closest large city (i.e. second-ranked city) is associated with a relatively short commuting distance in East Jutland.     

基于结构方程模型的西宁城市居民通勤行为及其影响因素

近年来,中国城市转型中居民职住关系的变化对通勤交通方式、通勤时间的影响,以及不同居住区居民通勤行为的差异性,引起了学者们的广泛关注。基于2013年西宁市居民活动日志调查数据,分析西宁居民通勤行为的居住区差异,利用结构方程模型分析通勤距离、通勤交通方式、通勤时间三者之间的关系,探讨居住区类型及个人社会经济属性因素对于通勤行为的影响。研究发现,通勤距离对通勤交通方式、通勤时间有显著的正向影响;男性、自有房者、高收入者、兼职就业者、高学历者采用机动化通勤方式的比例较高;在控制个人社会经济属性之后,居住区类型属性仍然对居民通勤行为产生显著影响。基于以上发现,对西宁城市交通发展和空间布局提出政策建议。     

发达国家通勤影响个人健康的研究综述与展望

随着社会经济的不断发展,健康问题已经越来越受到大家的关注。通勤作为居民每日的重要出行活动,是时间利用中的重要组成部分。近些年,城市交通状况开始不断恶化,糟糕的通勤形势逐渐对个人的健康状况构成威胁。发达国家较早开始了对于该问题的关注,已取得丰富的研究成果。相较之下,国内关于通勤影响个人健康的文献则相对缺乏。本文主要从个人心理健康、客观健康、健康行为三个维度,对西方发达国家通勤时间、通勤距离、通勤方式等通勤行对个人健康影响的相关文献进行了系统梳理与评述,并对未来研究进行展望,以期能够为我国城市通勤领域的研究提供新的视角与借鉴。     

邻里环境感知与个体健康对通勤模式选择的影响研究——以南京市为例

通勤是大部分城市就业者日常工作所必须面对的问题。相比宏观层面的城市建成环境,微观层面的邻里环境感知及个体健康与通勤模式选择的联系更为密切。以南京市主城区8个社区为案例地,利用结构方程模型探究邻里环境感知与个体健康对城市就业者通勤模式选择的影响。首先借助问卷调查数据,将通勤模式分为积极通勤、公共交通通勤、电动车/摩托车通勤以及小汽车通勤四类;其次使用因子分析法确定邻里环境感知的潜变量,并将个体健康分为身体健康、心理健康与健康行为3个潜变量;最后构建结构方程模型的理论框架并进行实证分析。研究发现：① 邻里环境感知变量中服务设施感知、环境品质感知对通勤模式选择存在显著的直接效应,交通安全感知对通勤模式选择存在显著的间接效应。② 个体健康变量中,心理健康与健康行为对通勤模式选择存在显著的直接效应。③ 通勤距离与社会经济属性对通勤模式选择存在显著的直接效应,同时社会经济属性对通勤模式选择亦存在显著的间接效应。基于研究结果,提出有效提升就业者对于社区环境的主观感受,进而提高就业者参与健康行为的意愿与就业者的健康水平,从而引导其选择更加健康和绿色的通勤模式。     

手机信令数据支撑下广州市过剩通勤及其空间分异格局

利用手机信令数据构建居委会尺度下的职住联系数据库,分析广州过剩通勤及其空间分异格局。研究发现,广州市过剩通勤为76.01%,与国内和西方国家城市相比处于较高水平,说明广州市职住空间组织效率偏低。过剩通勤的空间分异特征主要表现为：功能相对单一的郊区大型工业或房地产集聚区过剩通勤率偏高;传统市中心虽然就业机会集中,但因为高居住成本也出现较高的过剩通勤率;近郊区的特定功能区域,如大学城、偏农业发展型城郊村等区域出现较低的过剩通勤率;快速轨道交通（地铁）建设因降低了居民对通勤距离的敏感度而导致过剩通勤水平的提升,高过剩通勤率空间分布与地铁沿线和地铁站点分布存在一定的空间一致性。提升大城市的职住空间组织效率除需重点考虑提升区域职住空间平衡外,优化城市功能结构、降低住房成本区域差异等也需予以重点考虑。     

上海职住优化效应的代际差异

城市的职住关系一直为研究者广泛关注。过剩通勤概念以实际通勤与理论最短通勤的差距反映城市职住关系与通勤状态,是衡量通勤效率和优化潜力的常用指标。国内的过剩通勤研究数量有限,且鲜有从年龄视角考察。本文利用2017年9月上海市手机网格数据,分析不同年龄段居民的职住与通勤状态,采用模拟个人换居的方法测度过剩通勤,并探讨职住关系优化效应的代际差异。结果表明：上海居民的职住关系存在明显的代际差异,青年人是劣势群体,老年人是优势群体,中年人介于其间;上海全市过剩通勤率为69%,职住关系优化的潜力和效应巨大,可使得通勤距离显著减少,代际分异缓和,青年人的获得感最大,城市年龄空间结构更加均衡。提出上海的空间规划和政策应以理想的城市年龄空间结构为目标,以提高人的居住和就业空间的流动性、青年化城市中心、中老年化城市外围为途径。     

广州市过剩通勤的相关特征及其形成机制

在不改变目前城市结构的前提下, 通过模拟居民的居住与就业区位的最优组合获取理论上的最小通勤, 过剩通勤是实际通勤成本与最小通勤成本之间的差值, 它反映了城市通勤效率和潜力。利用线性规划函数, 以广州市为例, 利用2001 年和2005 年家庭调查问卷数据, 计算两年的过剩通勤分别为58.41%和44.74%, 这部分通勤是可通过优化居住与就业的区位组合而理论上可节约的。过剩通勤与家庭社会经济特征有关, 尤其与家庭收入、户籍类型、 住房产权和类型等密切相关, 家庭结构分化和收入分化是产生过剩通勤的重要原因。除受模型假设产生的误差影响外, 过剩通勤的产生还受社会经济体制改革、城市规划与建设及个人 的居住与就业偏好等因素的影响; 住房、国企和土地等相关制度的改革导致城市居住与就业空间重组、城市规划较少关注小区域范围内居住与就业的平衡、个人的择居和择业偏好的变化, 这些因素相互影响、相互作用, 共同对过剩通勤的产生和扩大产生重要影响。     

基于手机定位数据的珠海市职住空间特征研究

深入分析职住平衡的概念及内涵,从时间和空间两个视角提出了两种职住平衡测度方法。采用移动手机定位数据对珠海居民的就业和居住空间分布、通勤距离、通勤来源进行了分析,同时测算了各规划分区的职住指数。结果表明：就业地与居住地在空间分布上保持较高的一致性;全市居民以短距离通勤为主,平均通勤距离为2048m,各规划分区的居民通勤距离存在较大差异;各规划分区有80%以上的居民实现了本地就业或居住。同时,从自然、规划、政策方面分析了职住影响因素,并提出了优化产业和人口空间配置、打通各规划分区之间交通瓶颈、合理配套公共服务设施等相关建议。