Cooling and crystallization of lava in open channels, and the transition of Pāhoehoe Lava to 'A'ā

 Samples collected from a lava channel active at Kīlauea Volcano during May 1997 are used to constrain rates of lava cooling and crystallization during early stages of flow. Lava erupted at near-liquidus temperatures (∼1150  °C) cooled and crystallized rapidly in upper parts of the channel. Glass geothermometry indicates cooling by 12–14  °C over the first 2 km of transport. At flow velocities of 1–2 m/s, this translates to cooling rates of 22–50  °C/h. Cooling rates this high can be explained by radiative cooling of a well-stirred flow, consistent with observations of non-steady flow in proximal regions of the channel. Crystallization of plagioclase and pyroxene microlites occurred in response to cooling, with crystallization rates of 20–50% per hour. Crystallization proceeded primarily by nucleation of new crystals, and nucleation rates of ∼10⁴/cm³s are similar to those measured in the 1984 open channel flow from Mauna Loa Volcano. There is no evidence for the large nucleation delays commonly assumed for plagioclase crystallization in basaltic melts, possibly a reflection of enhanced nucleation due to stirring of the flow. The transition of the flow surface morphology from pāhoehoe to 'a'ā occurred at a distance of 1.9 km from the vent. At this point, the flow was thermally stratified, with an interior temperature of ∼1137  °C and crystallinity of ∼15%, and a flow surface temperature of ∼1100  °C and crystallinity of ∼45%. 'A'ā formation initiated along channel margins, where crust was continuously disrupted, and involved tearing and clotting of the flow surface. Both observations suggest that the transition involved crossing of a rheological threshold. We suggest this threshold to be the development of a lava yield strength sufficient to prevent viscous flow of lava at the channel margin. We use this concept to propose that 'a'ā formation in open channels requires both sufficiently high strain rates for continued disruption of surface crusts and sufficient groundmass crystallinity to generate a yield strength equivalent to the imposed stress. In Hawai'i, where lava is typically microlite poor on eruption, these combined requirements help to explain two common observations on 'a'ā formation: (a) 'a'ā flow fields are generated when effusion rates are high (thus promoting crustal disruption); and (b) under most eruption conditions, lava issues from the vent as pāhoehoe and changes to 'a'ā only after flowing some distance, thus permitting sufficient crystallization. Received: 3 September 1998 / Accepted: 12 April 1999     

Oxysulfates of copper, sodium, and potassium in the lava flows of the 2012–2013 Tolbachik Fissure Eruption

Samples from the surface of lava flows discharged by the 2012–2013 Tolbachik Fissure Eruption were found to contain oxysulfates of copper, sodium, and potassium: K₂Cu₃O(SO₄)₂ (fedotovite), NaKCu₂O(SO₄)₂, and Na₃K₅Cu₈O₄(SO₄)₈. The last two phases have no naturally occurring or synthetic analogues that we are aware of. They form flattened crystals of prismatic to long-prismatic habits. The crystals of Na₃K₅Cu₈O₄(SO₄)₈ have a chemical composition corresponding to the empirical formula Na_2.22K_5.47Cu_8.02S_8.05O₃₆. An X-ray analysis of this compound showed that it has a monoclinic symmetry, P2/c, a = 13.909(4), b = 4.977(1), c = 23.525(6) Å, β = 90.021(5)°, V = 1628.3(7) ų. The crystal structure was determined by direct techniques and refined to yield R ₁ for 3955 reflexes//web// with F ² > 4σF. The compound NaKCu₂O(SO₄)₂ also belongs to the monoclinic system, P2/c, a = 14.111(4), b = 4.946(1), c = 23.673(6) Å, β = 92.052(6)°, V = 1651.1(8) ų. The structure was determined by direct techniques to yield a tentative structural model that has been refined up to R ₁ = 0.135 for 4088 reflexes with F ² > 4σF. The crystal structure of Na₃K₅Cu₈O₄(SO₄)₈ is based on chains of [O₂Cu₄]⁴⁺ consisting of rib-coupled oxy-centered tetrahedrons of (OCu₄)⁶⁺. The chains are surrounded by sulfate radicals, resulting in columns of {[O₂Cu₄](SO₄)₄}^4? aligned along the b axis. The interchain space contains completely ordered positions of Na⁺ and K⁺ cations. The principle underlying the connection of NaKCu₂O(SO₄)₂ columns in the crystal structure of {[O₂Cu₄](SO₄)₄}^4? is different, in view of the relation Na:K = 1 as contrasted with 3:5 for the compound Na₃K₅Cu₈O₄(SO₄)₈. The presence of oxy-centered tetrahedrons in the structure of these new compounds furnishes an indirect hint at the importance of polynuclear copper-oxygen radicals with centering oxygen atoms as forms of transport of copper by volcanic gases.     

Emplacement and inflation of natrocarbonatitic lava flows during the March–April 2006 eruption of Oldoinyo Lengai,Tanzania

The most voluminous eruption of natrocarbonatite lava hitherto recorded on Earth occurred at Oldoinyo Lengai in March–April 2006. The lava flows produced in this eruption range from blocky 'a'a type to smooth-surfaced inflated pahoehoe. We measured lava inflation features (i.e. one tumulus and three pressure ridges) that formed in the various pahoehoe flows emplaced in this event. The inflation features within the main crater of Oldoinyo Lengai are relatively small-scale, measuring 1-5 m in width, 2.5–24.4 m in length and with inflation clefts less than 0.4 m deep. Their small sizes are in contrast to a tumulus that formed on the northwestern slope of the volcano (situated ~1140 m below the crater floor). The tumulus is roughly circular, measures 17.5 × 16.0 m, and is cut by a 4.4 m deep axial inflation cleft exposing two separate flow units. We measured the elastic properties (i.e. shear- and bulk moduli) of natrocarbonatitic crust and find that these are similar to those reported for basaltic crust, and that there is no direct correlation between magmastatic head and pressure required to form tumuli. All inflated flows in the 2006 event were confined by lateral barriers (main crater, erosional channel or erosional gully) suggesting that the two most important factors for endogenous growth in natrocarbonatitic lava flows are (1) lateral barriers that prevent widening of the flow, and (2) influx of new material beneath the viscoelastic and brittle crust.     

Geochemistry and mineralogy of the phonolite lava lake,Erebus volcano,Antarctica: 1972–2004 and comparison with older lavas

Mount Erebus, Antarctica, is a large (3794 m) alkaline open-conduit stratovolcano that hosts a vigorously convecting and persistently degassing lake of anorthoclase phonolite magma. The composition of the lake was investigated by analyzing glass and mineral compositions in lava bombs erupted between 1972 and 2004. Matrix glass, titanomagnetite, olivine, clinopyroxene, and fluor-apatite compositions are invariant and show that the magmatic temperature (∼ 1000°C) and oxygen fugacity (ΔlogFMQ = − 0.9) have been stable. Large temperature variations at the lake surface (~ 400–500°C) are not reflected in mineral compositions. Anorthoclase phenocrysts up to 10 cm in length feature a restricted compositional range (An_10.3–22.9Ab_62.8–68.1Or_11.4–27.2) with complex textural and compositional zoning. Anorthoclase textures and compositions indicate crystallization occurs at low degrees of effective undercooling. We propose shallow water exsolution causes crystallization and shallow convection cycles the anorthoclase crystals through many episodes of growth resulting in their exceptional size. Minor variations in eruptive activity from 1972 to 2004 are decoupled from magma compositions. The variations probably relate to changes in conduit geometry within the volcano and/or variable input of CO₂-rich volatiles into the upper-level magma chamber from deeper in the system.     

Explosive lava–water interactions I: architecture and emplacement chronology of volcanic rootless cone groups in the 1783–1784 Laki lava flow, Iceland

To determine the relationships between rootless cone emplacement mechanisms, morphology, and spatial distribution, we mapped the Hnúta and Hrossatungur groups of the 1783–1784 Laki lava flow in Iceland. We based our facies maps on Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) measurements, photogeological interpretations, and supporting field observations. The study area covers 2.77 km² and includes 2216 explosion sites. To establish the timing of rootless cone formation we incorporated tephrochronological constraints from eighty-eight stratigraphic sections and determined that the Hnúta and Hrossatungur groups are composite structures formed by the emplacement of six geographically and chronologically discrete domains. Rootless eruptions initiated in domain 1 on the first day of the Laki eruption (June 8, 1783) and lasted 1–2 days. The second episode of rootless activity began in domain 2 on June 11 and lasted 1–3 days. The four domains of the Hrossatungur group dominantly formed after June 14 and exhibit a complex emplacement sequence that reflects interactions between the Laki lava, contemporaneously emplaced rootless cones, and an existing topographic ridge. In the study area, we identify three distinct rootless cone archetypes (i.e., recurring morphological forms) that are related to tube-, channel-, and broad sheet lobe-fed eruptions. We assert that emplacement of lava above compressible substrates (e.g., unconsolidated sediments) may trigger rootless eruptions by causing subsidence-induced flexure and failure of the basal crust, thereby allowing molten lava (fuel) to come into direct contact with groundwater (coolant) and initiating analogs to explosive molten fuel–coolant interactions (MFCIs).     

Channel overflows of the Pōhue Bay flow,Mauna Loa,Hawai'i: examples of the contrast between surface and interior lava

A number of overflows from a large lava channel and tube system on the southwest rift zone of Mauna Loa were studied. Initial overflows were very low viscosity gas-rich phoehoe evidenced by flow-unit aspect ratios and vesicle sizes and contents. Calculated volumetric flow-rates in the channel range between 80 and 890 m³/s, and those of the overflows between 35 and 110 m³/s. After traveling tens to hundreds of meters the tops of these sheet-like overflows were disrupted into a surface composed of clinker and phoehoe fragments. After these 'a' overflows came to rest, lava from the interiors was able to break out on to the surface as phoehoe. The surface structure of a lava flow records the interaction between the differential shear rate (usually correlated with the volumetric flow-rate) and viscosity-induced resistance to flow. However, the interior of a flow, being better insulated, may react differently or record a later set of emplacement conditions. Clefts of toothpaste lava occurring within fields of clinker on proximal-type 'a' flows also record different shear rates during different times of flow emplacement. The interplay between viscosity and shear rate determines the final morphological lava type, and although no specific portion of lava ever makes a transition from 'a' back to phoehoe, parts of a flow can appear to do so.     

The nature and formation of cristobalite at the Soufrière Hills volcano, Montserrat: implications for the petrology and stability of silicic lava domes

Cristobalite is commonly found in the dome lava of silicic volcanoes but is not a primary magmatic phase; its presence indicates that the composition and micro-structure of dome lavas evolve during, and after, emplacement. Nine temporally and mineralogically diverse dome samples from the Soufrière Hills volcano (SHV), Montserrat, are analysed to provide the first detailed assessment of the nature and mode of cristobalite formation in a volcanic dome. The dome rocks contain up to 11 wt.% cristobalite, as defined by X-ray diffraction. Prismatic and platy forms of cristobalite, identified by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), are commonly found in pores and fractures, suggesting that they have precipitated from a vapour phase. Feathery crystallites and micro-crystals of cristobalite and quartz associated with volcanic glass, identified using SEM-Raman, are interpreted to have formed by varying amounts of devitrification. We discuss mechanisms of silica transport and cristobalite formation, and their implications for petrological interpretations and dome stability. We conclude: (1) that silica may be transported in the vapour phase locally, or from one part of the magmatic system to another; (2) that the potential for transport of silica into the dome should not be neglected in petrological and geochemical studies because the addition of non-magmatic phases may affect whole rock composition; and (3) that the extent of cristobalite mineralisation in the dome at SHV is sufficient to reduce porosity—hence, permeability—and may impact on the mechanical strength of the dome rock, thereby potentially affecting dome stability.     

Rootless shield and perched lava pond collapses at Kīlauea Volcano,Hawai'i

Effusion rate is a primary measurement used to judge the expected advance rate, length, and hazard potential of lava flows. At basaltic volcanoes, the rapid draining of lava stored in rootless shields and perched ponds can produce lava flows with much higher local effusion rates and advance velocities than would be expected based on the effusion rate at the vent. For several months in 2007–2008, lava stored in a series of perched ponds and rootless shields on Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai'i, was released episodically to produce fast-moving 'a'ā lava flows. Several of these lava flows approached Royal Gardens subdivision and threatened the safety of remaining residents. Using time-lapse image measurements, we show that the initial time-averaged discharge rate for one collapse-triggered lava flow was approximately eight times greater than the effusion rate at the vent. Though short-lived, the collapse-triggered 'a'ā lava flows had average advance rates approximately 45 times greater than that of the pāhoehoe flow field from which they were sourced. The high advance rates of the collapse-triggered lava flows demonstrates that recognition of lava accumulating in ponds and shields, which may be stored in a cryptic manner, is vital for accurately assessing short-term hazards at basaltic volcanoes.     

Cyclic spattering,seismic tremor,and surface fluctuation within a perched lava channel,Kīlauea Volcano

In late 2007, a perched lava channel, built up to 45 m above the preexisting surface, developed during the ongoing eruption near Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō cone on Kīlauea Volcano’s east rift zone. The lava channel was segmented into four pools extending over a total of 1.4 km. From late October to mid-December, a cyclic behavior, consisting of steady lava level rise terminated by vigorous spattering and an abrupt drop in lava level, was commonly observed in pool 1. We use geologic observations, video, time-lapse camera images, and seismicity to characterize and understand this cyclic behavior. Spattering episodes occurred at intervals of 40–100 min during peak activity and involved small (5–10-m-high) fountains limited to the margins of the pool. Most spattering episodes had fountains which migrated downchannel. Each spattering episode was associated with a rapid lava level drop of about 1 m, which was concurrent with a conspicuous cigar-shaped tremor burst with peak frequencies of 4–5 Hz. We interpret this cyclic behavior to be gas pistoning, and this is the first documented instance of gas pistoning in lava well away from the deeper conduit. Our observations and data indicate that the gas pistoning was driven by gas accumulation beneath the visco-elastic component of the surface crust, contrary to other studies which attribute similar behavior to the periodic rise of gas slugs. The gas piston events typically had a gas mass of about 2,500 kg (similar to the explosions at Stromboli), with gas accumulation and release rates of about 1.1 and 5.7 kg s⁻¹, respectively. The time-averaged gas output rate of the gas pistoning events accounted for about 1–2% of the total gas output rate of the east rift zone eruption.     

A new tree-ring date for the “floating island” lava flow,Mount St. Helens,Washington

Anomalously narrow and missing rings in trees 12 m from Mount St. Helens' floating island lava flow, and synchronous growth increases in trees farther from the flow margin, are evidence that this andesitic flow was extruded between late summer 1799 and spring 1800 a.d., within a few months after the eruption of Mount St. Helens' dacitic layer T tephra. For ease of reference, we assign here an 1800 a.d. date to this flow. The new date shows that the start of Mount St. Helens' Goat Rocks eruptive period (1800–1857 a.d.) resembled the recent (1980–1986) activity in both petrochemical trends and timing. In both cases, an initial explosive eruption of dacite was quickly succeeded by the eruption of more mafic lavas; dacite lavas then reappeared during an extended concluding phase of activity. This behavior is consistent with a recently proposed fluid-dynamic model of magma withdrawal from a compositionally zoned magma chamber.     

From source to surface: dynamics of Etna’s lava fountains investigated by continuous strain, magnetic, ground and satellite thermal data

We investigated the eruptive episodes that occurred at Etna volcano on 15 November 2011 and 18 March 2012 using different types of data. We present novel data from two recently installed strainmeters that recorded unique signals during the lava fountain phases of these events. The strainmeter data, integrated with those recorded by the magnetic network, and with satellite and ground thermal data, allowed us to follow the path of a gas-rich magma batch from the source inside the volcano to the surface and atmosphere. The amplitude ratio of the volumetric strain changes constrained the storage depth of the magma feeding the lava fountains above 1.5 km below sea level. Magnetic data revealed an attempted shallow lateral intrusion, whereas ground and satellite thermal data furnished a quantification of the total erupted volumes of ～2.2?×?10⁶?m³ for the 15 November event and ～3.0?×?10⁶?m³ for the 18 March event. Despite different durations of the explosive and effusive phases of the two lava fountain events, the total erupted volume was quite similar, suggesting the emptying of a shallow storage system displaying a steady behaviour.     

��A�䨡 lava flows in the Deccan Volcanic Province, India, and their significance for the nature of continental flood basalt eruptions

Newly identified ??a?? lava flows outcrop intermittently over an area of ~110?km² in the western Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP), India. They occur in the upper Thakurvadi Formation in the region south of Sangamner. The flows, one of which is compound, are 15?C25?m thick, and exhibit well-developed basal and flow-top breccias. The lavas have microcrystalline groundmasses and are porphyritic or glomerocrystic and contain phenocrysts of olivine, clinopyroxene or plagioclase feldspar. They are chemically similar to compound p??hoehoe flows at a similar stratigraphic horizon along the Western Ghats. Petrographic and geochemical differences between ??a?? flows at widely spaced outcrops at the same stratigraphic horizon suggest that they are the product of several eruptions, potentially from different sources. Their presence in the DVP could suggest relative proximity to vents. This discovery is significant because ??a?? lavas are generally scarce in large continental flood basalt provinces, which typically consist of numerous inflated compound p??hoehoe lobes and sheet lobes. Their scarcity is intriguing, and may relate to either their occurrence only in poorly preserved or exposed proximal areas or to the flat plateau-like topography of flood basalt provinces that may inhibit channelization and ??a?? formation, or both. In this context, the ??a?? flow fields described here are inferred to be the products of eruptions that produced unusually high-effusion-rate lavas compared to typical flood basalt eruptions. Whether these phases were transitional to lower intensity, sustained eruptions that fed extensive low effusion rate p??hoehoe flow fields remains unclear.     

Community preparedness for lava flows from Mauna Loa and Hualālai volcanoes,Kona, Hawai‘i

Lava flows from Mauna Loa and Huallai volcanoes are a major volcanic hazard that could impact the western portion of the island of Hawaii (e.g., Kona). The most recent eruptions of these two volcanoes to affect Kona occurred in a.d. 1950 and ca. 1800, respectively. In contrast, in eastern Hawaii, eruptions of neighboring Klauea volcano have occurred frequently since 1955, and therefore have been the focus for hazard mitigation. Official preparedness and response measures are therefore modeled on typical eruptions of Klauea.The combinations of short-lived precursory activity (e.g., volcanic tremor) at Mauna Loa, the potential for fast-moving lava flows, and the proximity of Kona communities to potential vents represent significant emergency management concerns in Kona. Less is known about past eruptions of Huallai, but similar concerns exist. Future lava flows present an increased threat to personal safety because of the short times that may be available for responding.Mitigation must address not only the specific characteristics of volcanic hazards in Kona, but also the manner in which the hazards relate to the communities likely to be affected. This paper describes the first steps in developing effective mitigation plans: measuring the current state of peoples knowledge of eruption parameters and the implications for their safety. We present results of a questionnaire survey administered to 462 high school students and adults in Kona. The rationale for this study was the long lapsed time since the last Kona eruption, and the high population growth and expansion of infrastructure over this time interval. Anticipated future growth in social and economic infrastructure in this area provides additional justification for this work.The residents of Kona have received little or no specific information about how to react to future volcanic eruptions or warnings, and short-term preparedness levels are low. Respondents appear uncertain about how to respond to threatening lava flows and overestimate the minimum time available to react, suggesting that personal risk levels are unnecessarily high. A successful volcanic warning plan in Kona must be tailored to meet the unique situation there.     

Lengths and hazards from channel-fed lava flows on Mauna Loa, Hawai‘i, determined from thermal and downslope modeling with FLOWGO

Using the FLOWGO thermo-rheological model we have determined cooling-limited lengths of channel-fed (i.e. a) lava flows from Mauna Loa. We set up the program to run autonomously, starting lava flows from every 4th line and sample in a 30-m spatial-resolution SRTM DEM within regions corresponding to the NE and SW rift zones and the N flank of the volcano. We consider that each model run represents an effective effusion rate, which for an actual flow coincides with it reaching 90% of its total length. We ran the model at effective effusion rates ranging from 1 to 1,000 m³ s^–1, and determined the cooling-limited channel length for each. Keeping in mind that most flows extend 1–2 km beyond the end of their well-developed channels and that our results are non-probabilistic in that they give all potential vent sites an equal likelihood to erupt, lava coverage results include the following: SW rift zone flows threaten almost all of Mauna Loas SW flanks, even at effective effusion rates as low as 50 m³ s^–1 (the average effective effusion rate for SW rift zone eruptions since 1843 is close to 400 m³ s^–1). N flank eruptions, although rare in the recent geologic record, have the potential to threaten much of the coastline S of Keauhou with effective effusion rates of 50–100 m³ s^–1, and the coast near Anaehoomalu if effective effusion rates are 400–500 m³ s^–1 (the 1859 a flow reached this coast with an effective effusion rate of 400 m³ s^–1). If the NE rift zone continues to be active only at elevations >2,500 m, in order for a channel-fed flow to reach Hilo the effective effusion rate needs to be 400 m³ s^–1 (the 1984 flow by comparison, had an effective effusion rate of 200 m³ s^–1). Hilo could be threatened by NE rift zone channel-fed flows with lower effective effusion rates but only if they issue from vents at 2,000 m or lower. Populated areas on Mauna Loas SE flanks (e.g. Phala), could be threatened by SW rift zone eruptions with effective effusion rates of 100 m³ s^–1.Editorial responsibility: J Donnelly-Nolan     

The distal segment of Etna’s 2001 basaltic lava flow

Etna’s 2001 basaltic lava flow provided a good example of the distal flow segment between the flow front and stable channel, across which the flow evolves from channel-contained to dispersed. This zone was mapped with meter precision using LIDAR data collected during 2004 and 2005. These data, supported by field mapping, show that the flow front comprised eight lobes each 10 to 20 m high. The flow front appears to have advanced not as a single unit, but as a series of lobes moving forward one lobe at a time. Primary lobes were centered on the channel axis and marginal lobes were off-axis. The lobes advanced as breakouts of low-yield-strength lava from the flow core of the stalled flow front. Marginal lobes were abandoned and contributed to marginal levees flanking the transitional channel. For Etna’s 2001 flow, the transitional channel is 140 m wide, 700 m long and fed a 240-m-long zone of dispersed flow; the change from stable to transitional channel occurred at a major reduction in slope. Above this, the stable channel is 5.2 km long, 55 to 105 m wide and bounded by 15- to 25-m-high levees, and the stable channel is located over a previous channel. In a final stage of activity, lava ponding at the break-in-slope that marks the terminus of the stable channel put pressure on the eastern levee, causing it to fail. Liberated lava then fed a final break-out to the east. Similar flow front-features occur at other volcanoes, indicating that similar processes are characteristic of dispersed flow zones.