Mechanism of the Formation of the East African Rift System

正The East African Rift System(EARS)is located in East Africa,separating into two main branches,the eastern branch and the western branch.It is considered as an intracontinental ridge system,which meets the Red Sea and     

The southern extension of the East African Rift System and related igneous activity

New details of the late- and post-Karroo fracture pattern in eastern southern Africa are shown on a map together with associated igneous rocks. The pattern is remarkably like that of the East African Rift Valleys with which it is continuous.There is a close parallelism between the Rift fractures and intracratonic orogenic belts, and also locally between the fractures and foliation trends of the gneisses in the belts. Relief differences across the faults range up to 2000 feet; many of the Rifts are asymmetrical with displacement only along one side.Although earth movements were intermittent over a long period of time, two main episodes occurred during post-Karroo to Cretaceous and Tertiary to recent times. Forty-nine isotopic ages of igneous material are taken from the literature and indicate eruptive activity over a 100 m. y. period.

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Zusammenfassung Neue Einzelheiten über das Bruchmuster in der Spät- und Post-Karroo im Osten des südlichen Afrikas sowie über die damit verbundenen Magmagesteine sind auf einer Karte angegeben. Das Bruchmuster hat eine außerordentliche Ähnlichkeit mit dem Ostafrikanischen Graben, welcher eine Fortsetzung davon ist.Ein enger Parallelismus besteht zwischen den Brüchen des tektonischen Grabens und den intrakratonischen, orogenetischen Zonen sowie auch örtlich innerhalb der Zonen zwischen den Brüchen und dem Schieferungsstreichen der Gneise. Der Unterschied im Relief über die Verwerfungen hin ist bis zu 2000 feet; viele dieser tektonischen Gräben sind asymmetrisch, und Verschiebungen geschehen nur entlang einer Seite.Obgleich Erdbewegungen durch lange Zeiträume unterbrochen waren, konnten jedoch zwei Hauptepisoden von der Post-Karroo bis zur Kreide und von dem Tertiär bis zur heutigen Zeit festgestellt werden. Neunundvierzig isotopische Alter für Magmagestein sind in der Literatur zitiert und deuten auf eine eruptive Tätigkeit von über 100 M. J. hin.

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Résumé Nouveaux détails concernant le dessin de fracture pendant le Karroo Supérieur et le Post-Karroo dans l'est de l'Afrique méridionale ainsi que les roches ignées associées sont indiqués sur une carte. On y observe une similarité très remarquable entre le dessin de fracture de l'Afrique méridionale et celui du fossé tectonique de l'Afrique-Est, du quel il est un prolongement.Il y a un parallélisme étroit entre les fractures de fossé tectonique et les zones orogéniques ainsi que localement entre les fractures et la direction de foliation des gneisses dans les zones orogéniques. La différence en relief à travers les failles se range près de 2000 feet; beaucoup de fossés tectoniques sont asymmétriques; ils montrent un déplacement sur un côté seulement.Les mouvements de terre étaient intermittents pendant une longue période de temps; mais deux épisodes principaux se présentaient pendant le Karroo Supérieur jusqu'au Crétacé et pendant le Tertiaire jusqu'au Quaranteneuf âges isotopiques de roches ignées sont cités de la littérature consultée et les âges indiquent une activité eruptive plus de 100 m. a.

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Spatial and temporal geochemical variability in lacustrine sedimentation in the East African Rift System: Evidence from the Kenya Rift and regional analyses

Many previous studies on lacustrine basins in the East African Rift System have directed their attention to climatic controls on contemporary sedimentation or climate change as part of palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. In contrast, this research focuses on the impact of tectonism and volcanism on rift deposition and develops models that help to explain their roles and relative importance. The study focuses on the spatial and temporal variability in bulk sediment geochemistry from a diverse range of modern and ancient rift sediments through an analysis of 519 samples and 50 major and trace elements. The basins examined variously include, or have contained, wetlands and/or shallow to deep, fresh to hypersaline lakes. Substantial spatial variability is documented for Holocene to modern deposits in lakes Turkana, Baringo, Bogoria, Magadi and Malawi. Mio‐Pleistocene sediments in the Central Kenya Rift and Quaternary deposits of the southern Kenya Rift illustrate temporal variability. Tectonic and volcanic controls on geochemical variability are explained in terms of: (i) primary controlling factors (faulting, subsidence, uplift, volcanism, magma evolution and antecedent lithologies and landscapes); (ii) secondary controls (bedrock types, rift shoulder and axis elevations, accommodation space, meteoric and hydrothermal fluids and mantle CO ₂); and (iii) response factors (catchment area size, orographic rains, rain shadows, vegetation densities, erosion and weathering rates, and spring/runoff ratios). The models developed have, in turn, important implications for palaeoenvironmental interpretation in other depositional basins.     

东非裂谷东支肯尼亚裂谷形成演化

东非裂谷东支肯尼亚裂谷包括5个重点凹陷,除South Lokichar凹陷外,其余凹陷均无发现。肯尼亚裂谷的形成演化及动力机制认识不清是制约油气勘探的关键。通过系统分析肯尼亚裂谷不同凹陷形成年代、裂谷类型和动力机制、构造演化和沉积充填过程,得到以下几点认识:(1)South Lokichar凹陷形成时间早,地层年代老。South Lokichar凹陷主要发育晚渐新世-中中新世地层;Turkana、Kerio及North Lokichar凹陷以中中新世-全新世地层为主;Kerio Valley凹陷主要发育中-晚中新世地层;(2)阿法尔地幔柱和肯尼亚地幔柱的隆升控制肯尼亚裂谷的形成演化。South Lokichar凹陷的形成演化主要受阿法尔地幔柱控制;其余4个凹陷主要受肯尼亚地幔柱控制;(3)不同类型的凹陷构造演化和沉积充填差异较大。South Lokichar凹陷与Kerio Valley凹陷为被动型裂谷,构造演化经历初始裂陷期、主裂陷期和裂陷后期三个阶段,在主裂陷期发育优质烃源岩;Turkana、Kerio及North Lokichar凹陷为主动型裂谷,构造演化包括火山事件活动期和间歇...     

Crustal structure of the East African Rift zone

A review of seismological data on the crustal structure of the East African Rift zone is presented. The only refraction line is that along the Gregory Rift, which indicates a 7.5 km/sec refractor which is presumed to be the Moho. The bulk of data is provided by surface-wave dispersion studies. Some preliminary measurements of crustal and sub-Moho velocities using the University of Durham array at Kaptagat in Kenya are included.

There is now a growing body of evidence that the crust is generally of shield type over the whole rift zone. The exception is along the axis of the Gregory Rift, where a low-velocity Moho and some crustal modification is apparent. This is presumably the result of magma intrusions and suggests some crustal separation along this section of the rift. Sub-Moho velocities are probably normal outside the rifts themselves, though anomalously low upper-mantle velocities are to be associated with rifting. There is firm evidence for thinning of the lithosphere along the eastern branch of the rift. A cross-section of the Gregory Rift which is consistent with the current data is presented.     

Dynamics of the East African climate

Results of studies on regional climatic trends and the factors controlling the regional climate have been discussed in this paper. Potential impact of impending climatic change on the natural resources and socio-economic activities has also been projected. Well-recognised systems which control the space-time variation of rainfall and temperature over the region include the space time characteristics of (i) Intertropical convergence Zone (ITCZ), (ii) Monsoonal wind systems (iii) Subtropical anticyclones (iv) Tropical cyclones (v) Jetstreams (vi) Easterly/Westerly wave perturbations (vii) Extra-tropical weather systems (viii) Quasi-biennial oscillations and ENSO events with their telelinks. No statistically significant trends have been observed in the inter-annual characteristics of rainfall at most of the locations. Apart from urbanization signals from the large urban centres, no statistically significant trends have been observed in the temporal temperature patterns over the region. Inter-annual variation of temperature is seen to be inversely associated with rainfall which in turn is also associated with ENSO signals. However, data of mountain glaciers has shown depletion of glaciers but, the river flow data has not shown any decreasing trend so far. The lake levels also reflect only the inter-annual variations attributable to wet and dry conditions.     

Thermal and exhumation history of the central Rwenzori Mountains, Western Rift of the East African Rift System, Uganda

The Rwenzori Mountains (Mtns) in west Uganda are the highest rift mountains on Earth and rise to more than 5,000 m. We apply low-temperature thermochronology (apatite fission-track (AFT) and apatite (U–Th–Sm)/He (AHe) analysis) for tracking the cooling history of the Rwenzori Mtns. Samples from the central and northern Rwenzoris reveal AFT ages between 195.0 (±8.4) Ma and 85.3 (±5.3) Ma, and AHe ages between 210.0 (±6.0) Ma to 24.9 (±0.5) Ma. Modelled time–temperature paths reflect a protracted cooling history with accelerated cooling in Permo-Triassic and Jurassic times, followed by a long period of constant and slow cooling, than succeeded by a renewed accelerated cooling in the Neogene. During the last 10 Ma, differentiated erosion and surface uplift affected the Rwenzori Mtns, with more pronounced uplift along the western flank. The final rock uplift of the Rwenzori Mtns that partly led to the formation of the recent topography must have been fast and in the near past (Pliocene to Pleistocene). Erosion could not compensate for the latest rock uplift, resulting in Oligocene to Miocene AHe ages.     

上新世热带海道变化影响东亚气候的模拟研究

上新世早—中期是巴拿马海道关闭及印度尼西亚海道收缩的关键时期。目前,针对这两个海道关闭的气候效应已有不少研究,但多数研究关注巴拿马海道、洋流变化及其与北半球高纬冰盖发育的联系,缺乏两大热带海道关闭/收缩对东亚气候影响及机理的研究。我们基于挪威地球系统模型(NorESM-L)探讨了印尼海道收缩及巴拿马海道的浅关闭对东亚气候的影响。结果表明,热带海道的关闭/收缩加强了北太平洋的经向梯度,进一步导致夏季近地表气温在东亚北部降低,东亚南部升高;降水在长江流域至中国东海一线显著增加,但在东亚南部至西南部显著减少。冬季,近地表气温在东亚大陆地区升高,降水减少。上述变化主要由印尼海道的收缩导致,除冬季温度外,巴拿马海道浅关闭对东亚气候的影响较弱。此外,结合定性的记录-模拟对比,我们进一步揭示出热带海道的关闭/收缩可在一定程度上影响东亚气候在中上新世的转型,但不是主要驱动力。     

Hydrothermal hydrocarbon gases: 2, Application in the East African Rift System

Hydrocarbon gases are ubiquitous in the hydrothermal systems of the East African Rift System (EARS), though often found at very low concentrations in the ‘volcanic’ eastern branch as compared to the ‘sedimentary’ western branch. Study of the chemical and isotopic compositions of these hydrocarbons from sites in Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Uganda reveals considerable homogeneity over hundreds of km of the various rift units. Consideration of C and He isotopic evidence points to a predominantly crustal thermogenic origin for the hydrocarbons, there being no evidence of mantle inputs in either the MORB or ‘hotspot’ sectors of the EARS. Temperature information from geothermal wells has been utilised to investigate the relationship between reservoir temperatures and ratios of CH₄ to C₂H₆. The general C₁/C₂ geothermometric relationship proposed in Part 1 of this study holds reasonably well, and is shown to give results equal to or better than the ‘inorganic’ gas geothermometers presently in use, both in the wellfields and undeveloped high-enthalpy geothermal areas. Results from low-enthalpy hot spring systems are less well correlated with apparent deep temperatures, but consistent with data from similar systems elsewhere in the world.     

东非裂谷Kerio盆地石油地质特征与勘探潜力

东非裂谷东支的South Lokichar盆地于2012年获得勘探突破,成为研究和勘探的热点地区.但近年来周边盆地勘探效果不佳,有待深入分析.Kerio盆地紧邻South Lokichar盆地,勘探程度低,国内在此地的研究处于空白区.基于最新地震地质综合研究成果,阐述其石油地质特征和勘探潜力.结果表明:Kerio盆地为主动裂谷,呈西陡东缓的半地堑结构;发育渐新世以来的5套沉积地层,最大沉积厚度可达6500 m;存在一套被证实的烃源岩,生烃指标好,但厚度仅20 m;发育河流和三角洲相砂岩,孔渗物性好.盆地可划分为4个凹陷和5个构造圈闭带.中部缓坡带和东部反转构造带为盆地的有利勘探区带,可能存在2种成藏模式.盆地具有一定勘探潜力,烃源岩是最主要的地质风险.     

东非裂谷系西支构造样式及其对油气成藏的控制作用

基于东非裂谷系西支地震地质综合解释对比研究,发现该生长型裂谷盆地受基底属性影响,主要发育陡断面地堑型盆地结构,沿边界主控断裂走向发育背离型和接近型两类主要调节构造,沿边界主控断裂倾向主要发育地垒式和地堑式两类调节构造。构造样式控制了主要成藏条件：陡断面地堑式裂谷能够形成沉积范围广、厚度大的湖相优质烃源岩;裂谷间走向调节构造属于一级调节带,控制长轴辫状河三角洲的展布;裂谷内错断的边界断裂带属于次级走向调节构造,控制中小型扇三角州的发育。倾向调节构造形成的断鼻、断块圈闭,为该类盆地的主要油气藏类型。     

中非裂谷系前寒武系基岩油气成藏组合

中非裂谷系是在前寒武系结晶基岩基础上发育起来的中新生代裂谷盆地群。通过露头和钻井资料研究发现,基岩主要由前寒武系岩浆岩、正变质岩和少量副变质岩组成。根据暗色矿物含量可以将基岩划分为长英质和铁镁质岩石两大类,前者更有利于风化和裂缝的形成,储层物性较好。寒武纪-侏罗纪长期风化作用形成了广泛分布且厚度较大的球形风化壳(段),早白垩世中非剪切带的走滑拉张应力场与前寒武系刚性基岩的耦合作用在基底产生了大量高角度断层、共轭缝、微裂缝和节理等,风化淋滤、表生和热液作用控制了溶蚀、胶结和次生孔隙发育。风化壳和裂缝储层发育具有“似层状”的特征,垂向上基岩潜山储层序列可进一步划分为风化淋滤带、裂缝发育带、半充填裂缝带和致密带四个区带。中非裂谷系盆地在早白垩世、晚白垩世和古近纪三期裂谷期发育了三期区域性厚层泥页岩,古近系暗色泥岩由于埋藏浅,处于未成熟阶段,不能作为有效烃源岩,上白垩统泥岩以滨浅湖相为主,有机质含量总体不高,以Ⅲ型干酪根为主,下白垩统深湖相泥岩是区域上的优质烃源岩,同时为基岩提供了良好的油源和顶盖层。根据盖层的时代,可以划分出下白垩统、上白垩统和古近系3类成藏组合。乍得Bongor盆地基岩勘探获得极大成功,发现了一批高产稀油油田,打开了中非地区一个新的油气勘探领域。     

The origin of high bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations in waters of the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley, East African Rift system

Thermal waters in the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley are characterized by high Na, bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations, and near-neutral to alkaline pH. Sodium, bicarbonate and fluoride are positively correlated in the waters. The principal reason for the bicarbonate in the area is the high rate of carbon dioxide outgassing. This, combined with acid volcanics, geothermal heating, low Ca and low salinity, is also one of the causes of high fluoride in this part of the active volcanic zone of the East African Rift. Evaporative concentration is responsible for the high salinity, alkalinity and fluoride in the closed-basin lakes of the region. The waters are undersaturated with respect to fluoride and anhydrite. Calcium tends to be fixed in Ca bearing minerals such as calcite and epidote, which are abundant in the system. Hence, it appears that fluoride is a mobile component in acid volcanic geothermal systems.     

Hydrothermal origin of metals in some East African Rift Lakes

The chemical composition of all Western Rift valley lakes is controlled by emanations of saline and metalliferous hydrothermal solutions. Center of present day activity is Lake Kivu. Sediments of the last 15,000 years carry the distinct chemical fingerprint of hydrothermal springs in the form of stratiform ore deposits. The geological record reveals periods of volcanic and hydrothermal activity and quiescence which coincide with the African climatic sequence of pluvials and interpluvials. It is concluded that the hydrothermal solutions are meteoric waters which on passage through the volcanic wall rock have derived their metal and salt load. Presence of volcanic CO₂ has enforced the leaching process.

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Zusammenfassung Die chemische Zusammensetzung der großen Seen im Bereich des Western Rift ist maßgeblich durch Einschüttungen salziger und metallhaltiger hydrothermaler Lösungen bestimmt. Zentrum heutiger hydrothermaler Tätigkeit ist der Kivusee. Sedimente der letzten 15 000 Jahre weisen einen deutlichen hydrothermalen Fingerabdruck in der Form schichtgebundener Erzlagen auf. Die Sedimentabfolge zeigt einen mehrfachen Wechsel von Perioden vulkanisch-hydrothermaler Tätigkeit und Stille. Diese stimmen zeitlich überein mit Pluvial- bzw. Interpluvialzeiten. Wir vermuten, daß die hydrothermalen Lösungen ehemalige Regenwässer sind, die beim Durchfluß durch das vulkanische Nebengestein Salze und Metalle aufgenommen haben. Die Anwesenheit von vulkanischem CO₂ hat die Auslaugungsprozesse verstärkt.

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Résumé La composition chimique des lacs de la vallée du «Western Rift» est contrôlée par des émanations de solutions hydrothermales salines et métallifères. Le centre de l'activité actuelle est le lac Kivu. Dans les sédiments des derniers 15000 ans ces émanations hydrothermales ont formé des enrichissements minéralisés stratiformes. Les annales géologiques indiquent des périodes d'activité et de quiétude volcaniques et hydrothermales qui coïncident avec la séquence climatique africaine d'époques pluviales et interpluviales. On conclût que les solutions hydrothermales sont des eaux météoriques qui ont dérivé leur charge de métal et de sel en traversant les roches volcaniques encaissantes. La présence du CO₂ volcanique a facilité cet enrichissement.

     

东非裂谷东支South Lokichar盆地石油地质特征及成藏规律

东非裂谷东支由多个盆地组成,South Lokichar是唯一有油气发现的盆地,目前对于该盆地的石油地质特征及成藏规律仍认识不清,严重制约着东非裂谷东支下一步勘探.本文综合利用钻井、地震、岩芯、薄片以及分析化验等资料,对South Lokichar盆地的构造和地层发育特征、关键成藏条件和影响因素以及成藏规律进行详细分析...     

Lake-groundwater relationships and fluid-rock interaction in the East African Rift Valley: isotopic evidence

The assessment of water resources in the Rift Valley environment is important for population, agriculture and energy-related issues and depends on a good understanding of the relationship between freshwater lakes and regional groundwater. This can be hampered by the amount of fluid-rock interaction which occurs throughout the rift, obscuring original hydrochemical signatures. However, O and H stable isotope ratios can be used as tracers of infiltration over sometimes considerable distances, while showing that the volcanic edifices of the rift floor have varying effects on groundwater flow patterns. Specific cases from Kenya and Ethiopia are considered, including Lakes Naivasha, Baringo, Awasa and Zwai.In addition to their physical tracing role, stable isotopes can reveal information about processes of fluid-rock interaction. The general lack of O isotope shifting in rift hydrothermal systems suggests a high water:rock ratio, with the implication that these systems are mature. Carbon isotope studies on the predominantly bicarbonate waters of the rift show how they evolve from dilute meteoric recharge to highly alkaline waters, via the widespread silicate hydrolysis promoted by the flux of mantle carbon dioxide which occurs in most parts of the rift. There appears to be only minor differences in the C cycle between Kenya and Ethiopia.     

Hydrothermal petroleum from lacustrine sedimentary organic matter in the East African Rift.

Cape Kalamba oil seeps occur at the south end of the Ubwari Peninsula, at the intersection of faults controlling the morphology of the northern basin of the Tanganyika Rift, East Africa. Oil samples collected at the surface of the lake 3-4 km offshore from Cape Kalamba have been studied. The aliphatic hydrocarbon and biomarker compositions, with the absence of the typical suite of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, indicate an origin from hydrothermal alteration of immature microbial biomass in the sediments. These data show a similarity between a tar sample from the beach and the petroleum from the oil seeps, and confirm that the source of these oils is from organic matter consisting mainly of bacterial and degraded algal biomass, altered by hydrothermal activity. The compositions also demonstrate a < 200 degrees C temperature for formation/generation of this hydrothermal petroleum, similar to the fluid temperature identified for the Pemba hydrothermal site located 150 km north of Cape Kalamba. The 14C age of 25.6 ka B.P. obtained for the tar ball suggests that Pleistocene lake sediments could be the source rock. Hydrothermal generation may have occurred slightly before 25 ka B.P., during a dry climatic environment, when the lake level was lower than today. These results also suggest that the Cape Kalamba hydrothermal activity did not occur in connection with an increased flux of meteoric water, higher water tables and lake levels as demonstrated in the Kenya Rift and for the Pemba site. Hydrothermal petroleum formation is a facile process also in continental rift systems and should be considered in exploration for energy resources in such locales.     

东非裂谷系西支中南段Karoo地层分布特点与勘探前景

东非裂谷系一直是世界油气勘探重点关注区,尤其在西支Albertine盆地获得重大油气发现,而与之具有相似成因演化的西支中南段其它盆地,勘探潜力一直不明朗并急待挖掘。中-古生代Karoo地层及分布在该地区广泛分布,特别是作为烃源和主要的勘探层系在东非海岸陆缘盆地被广泛证实后,Karoo的勘探潜力备受关注。然而,Karoo本身经过漫长的演变,涵盖的地质学内容包罗万象,混淆不清,十分不利于该地区油气勘探潜力的研究和判断。本文通过系统查阅国外文献并结合东非裂谷系的研究工作,初步查明Karoo的成因、演变及分布,并系统评价Karoo地层在西支中南段裂谷盆地及周边的分布,探讨其勘探意义。但以Karoo作为东非地区未来勘探领域仍然面临着一系列不确定性的问题和风险,值得思索和总结。     

Processing and interpretation of the gravity field of the East African Rift: implication for crustal extension

Compilation of new and existing gravity data were undertaken to assess the nature of the crust beneath the East African Rift System. Using 3D gravity modeling code crustal model of gravity profiles across two sectors of the rift were computed. The results are discussed in light of the structure of the rift system.The results of the 3D modeling of gravity profiles across the two rift zones revealed northward thinning of the crust. The maximum crustal attenuation occurs beneath the Afar depression, indicating the Afar rift undergoes an intense fragmentation of the crust resulting from faulting and magmatic activity. However, our computed crustal thickness below the Afar depression falls within an upper bound compared to elsewhere below tectonically active rift zones. This can be explained in terms of crustal accretion resulting from an impact of the Afar mantle plume since 30 Ma ago.The residual gravity obtained using high-cut filtering techniques reveals significant density contrast between the northern and southern sectors of the rift. The northern part of the rift is characterized by regular patterns of positive gravity anomalies, which can be interpreted in terms of a zone of crustal thinning through which relatively dense materials have intruded the overlying crust. In contrast, south of the Main Ethiopian Rift, the anomalies are characterized by random patterns and low amplitudes. The along-rift-axis variation in gravity anomalies implies that the style of crustal deformation changed progressively, beginning with regionally distributed crustal deformation, such as the one we observe within the more juvenile and wider southern segment of the rift, to localized deformation within the active and narrow rift zones of the northern sector of the Ethiopian Rift. We suggest that the key parameters controlling along-rift-axis variation in gravity anomalies are the rate of crustal extension, faulting and magmatic activities.