石窟的地学基础及其分类

石窟是一种佛教建筑，以往均从宗教、文化和艺术等方面加以研究，但开凿石窟离不开一定的地质地貌，尤其是岩石条件，因此，石窟与地学，特别是岩石有着密切的关系。着重岩石与石窟的关系探讨石窟的地学基础及其分类，从地学的角度探讨有关石窟的保护问题。     

Numerical modelling of the driving response of thin‐walled open‐ended piles

The driving response of thin‐walled open‐ended piles is studied using numerical simulation of the wave propagation inside the soil plug and the pile. An elastic finite element analysis is carried out to identify the stress wave propagation in the vicinity of the pile toe. It is found that the shear stress wave has the highest magnitude above the bottom of the soil plug. Below the bottom of the soil plug, the vertical stress wave has the highest magnitude. Although the shear stress wave propagating in the radial direction is similar in magnitude to the vertical stress wave at the bottom of the soil plug, it decays rapidly while travelling downwards. The highest vertical stress at the bottom of the soil plug appears after the vertical stress wave interacts with the shear stress wave travelling in the radial direction. Initially, the vertical stress wave propagates with the dilation wave velocity in both the radial and vertical directions. After it interacts with the shear stress wave, the vertical stress wave starts to propagate with the shear wave velocity in the radial direction and with the axial wave velocity downwards. It is concluded that at the bottom of the soil plug, the interaction between the waves travelling in radial and vertical directions is important. The capabilities of several one‐dimensional pile‐in‐pile models to reproduce the driving response given by a two‐dimensional axisymmetric finite element model is studied. It is seen that when the base of the soil plug fails, a one‐dimensional pile‐in‐pile model can be used to achieve results in agreement with the finite element model. However, when the pile is unplugged, where the base of the soil plug does not fail, a reduced finite element mesh that permits the radial wave propagation inside the soil plug must be used. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

粘土干湿循环中裂缝演变过程的数值模拟

在非饱和土简化固结理论基础上,对粘土在干湿过程中,表面裂缝从形成、发展到闭合的发展过程进行了数值模拟,模拟结果说明,本文采用的基于非饱和简化固结理论的计算方法是可行、实用的.     

初论尾祁秦缝合系

阿尔金断裂具有线性与弧形相叠加的几何学特征及强烈的时空不均一性，阿尔金断裂是一条同时具有逆冲、左行走滑和正滑复杂力学性质的巨型断裂系。走滑作用和正滑作用的主要时期分别为白垩纪-新生代和上新世一第四纪，逆冲作用则是晚古生代以来一直起主导作用的变形事件（大约305Ma以来）。阿尔金断裂的形成与其两侧地块的强烈不均一变形（阿尔金山腹地以收缩变形为主，祁连地块以逆冲扩展为主）有关，它经历了分段破裂、逐段连接和逐渐扩展的动力学过程，其形成与祁连地块中的上叠式逆冲序列和青藏高原隆升同步，随着自南而北逆冲扩展和青藏高原     

Numerical analysis of soil plug behaviour inside open-ended piles during driving

The plugging mechanism of infinitely-long open-ended piles is examined using numerical simulation of the wave propagation inside the soil plug and pile. It is shown that the key parameters for the plugging mechanism are the pile radius, the shape of the impact load, the shear wave velocity of the soil inside the pile, and the friction at the pile–soil interface. Consequently, the tendency of the pile to plug during driving can be assessed prior to the driving process by consideration of these key parameters. Existing one-dimensional models for the shaft response of open-ended piles are discussed and an improved model is presented. The differences between using one-dimensional models and finite element models to simulate the plugging process are examined. The differences are found to vary with the key parameters. Pile-in-pile and lumped-mass one-dimensional models are found to give satisfactory performance for some parameter combinations, while for others an axisymmetric finite element model must be used. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

上海口岸进口煤炭总汞含量的分布特征

随着我国从煤炭净出口国向世界第一大煤炭进口国转变,进口煤炭中汞成为大气汞污染一个不可忽视的来源,研究进口煤炭中总汞含量的分布特征,对科学评估进口煤炭中汞的迁入性风险和保护环境安全具有重要意义。本文借鉴美国环境保护总署分析固体和液体(包括土壤、沉积物、沉淀物及废水或地下水等)中汞含量的方法(EPA 7473),运用直接测汞仪法测定了上海口岸123批进口印度尼西亚、加拿大、俄罗斯、澳大利亚煤炭的总汞含量。进口煤炭中总汞含量的稳健统计描述表明,上海口岸进口煤炭总汞含量中位值为0.043 mg/kg,标准化四分位距为0.025 mg/kg。依据我国煤炭行业标准MT/T 963—2005《煤中汞含量分级》,上海口岸进口煤炭主要为特低汞煤和低汞煤,其中印度尼西亚煤炭中存在高汞煤和中汞煤。进口煤炭汞含量与灰分含量、全硫含量的相关分析表明,印度尼西亚、俄罗斯煤炭总汞含量与灰分含量不相关,与全硫含量正相关,推断汞的赋存形态主要为硫化物结合态;进口加拿大煤炭总汞含量与灰分含量呈负相关,与全硫含量呈正相关,推断煤炭中存在一定的有机结合态汞;进口澳大利亚煤炭总汞含量与灰分含量呈正相关,与全硫含量呈负相关,推断煤炭中汞的赋存形态主要为铝硅酸盐结合态。本文建立的固体进样-直接测汞仪测定煤炭中总汞含量的方法,省去了消解样品前处理操作,较冷原子吸收光谱法、氢化物发生-原子荧光光谱法等传统分析方法大幅缩短了检验流程,提高了分析效率,值得推广应用;运用该方法可准确评价进口煤炭中汞的赋存形态特征,针对性提出高汞煤炭的处理方法和燃煤电厂汞排放量控制的有效途径。     

Observations on the behavior of gold during supergene oxidation at Summitville,Colorado, U.S.A., and implications for electrum stability in the weathering environment

The textural relations, morphology, and composition of gold grains in both oxidized and unoxidized ore from the Summitville, Colorado AuCuAg deposit have been investigated in this study. Gold from oxidized Summitville ore is finer grained than that from unoxidized ore, and occurs exclusively in intimate intergrowths with goethite of presumed supergene origin. These oxide-gold grains show no evidence of silver depletion and are enriched in silver relative to primary gold in a few cases. This trend can be explained using the stability relations of silver in electrum at 25°C. At this temperature, electrum with up to 20 wt % Ag may be relatively stable in the weathering environment, provided that chloride contents are sufficiently low in the coexisting aqueous phase. This is in accord with the maximum silver values observed in gold grains in the oxidized zone of the Summitville deposit, and with the negligible chloride content of present mine drainage. The absence of chloride that is implied by these electrum compositions effectively rules out gold-chloride complexes as an explanation for the local remobilization of gold in the oxidized zone at Summitville. It strongly suggests that gold-chloride complexes are not necessary to transport gold, at least on a local scale, in the acidic environment that characterizes many weathering sulfide ore bodies. Local gold mobilization in this environment is believed to reflect the formation of transient gold-thiosulfate complexes.     

饱水粘性土主固结理论(续):主固结过程粘性土含水量与时间的关系

论文的前文(饱水粘性土主固结理论) 已从理论上导出粘性土“主固结比(η) ”、“极限主固结量(S_η) ”及其主固结度U_η的计算方法, 它们取决于粘性土的初始含水量和液限(W_t、W_L) 而与固结应力p无关.作为前文的续篇, 主要是探求一维主固结过程含水量和时间(t) 的变化关系(W_t=f(t, z)).根据一维固结物理模型及假设条件建立的含水量为因变量的主固结二阶偏微分方程并通过特定的边界条件和初始条件, 利用分离变量法和三角函数正交原理解得主固结过程含水量和时间的关系式, 并获得主固结系数Θ及其时间因数Δ的新表达式, 它们在形式上与太沙基固结方程相似, 但实质内容上不一致, 前者是探索粘性土含水量变化, 后者是超静孔压u的变化, 利用新的一维主固结方程进一步导出主固结量(S_t), 平均主固结度(U_t) 及主固结剩余量(ΔS) 等新一组表达式, 利用工程实际数据分别计算表明新的主固结系数Θ所含的相关物理量除含水量外, 其他的物理量如渗透系数(K), 超静孔压水头高度(h₁), 粘性土比重(G_s) 等都不具实质的影响.      

库水位升降作用下大型堆积体边坡变形破坏预测

库岸边坡的变形破坏及稳定性研究是目前国内外研究的热点之一。基于水电站库区一大型堆积体边坡,通过现场原位直剪试验获取岩土体的力学参数,利用岩土数值分析FLAC3D软件,考虑了堆积体与基岩基覆接触带介质的应变软化特性,对水库蓄水和下降过程中边坡的变形破坏特征进行了分析预测。结果表明,在库水升降作用下变形主要发生在堆积体内部;根据堆积体的变形特征可分为3个区：前缘牵引变形区,变形量最大;中间过渡区,变形量最小;后缘被牵引变形区,变形量介于前缘和中间之间。模拟过程中,在坡体的不同位置设置位移监测点,得到了蓄水和水位下降过程中各监测点的位移时程曲线,监测结果显示,水位下降时堆积体前缘易形成局部失稳。通过剪应变增量判断堆积体边坡在库水作用下可形成2个潜在的滑动破坏面     

天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川近雪面气象要素观测分析

利用中国气象局乌鲁木齐沙漠气象研究所于2009年1月20日至12月31日在天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川冰雪表面实施大气科学观测实验观测取得的资料和同期大西沟气象站资料, 分析了1号冰川四季大气温度、风速、风向以及总辐射的变化特征, 对比、探讨了冰川尺度上冰雪表面与周边山地的辐射和地-气热量传输特性, 在此基础上揭示了二者气温、风速、大气湿度变化的差异及其成因. 研究表明: 1)由于冰川冰雪对太阳辐射的反射率高, 冰雪表面得到的净辐射和热量少, 使得冰川四季大气温度比大西沟站平均偏低2.9 ℃; 2)冰川与周边山地下垫面的不同, 引起太阳净辐射-温度场-气压场-风场的连锁变化, 造成冰川轴向风以下行偏南气流为主导, 法向风盛行偏东气流; 冰川夜间风速大于大西沟, 白天却小于大西沟风速; 3)冰川和大西沟大气含水量较高, 相对湿度在40%～80%之间变化, 因大西沟地表蒸发大, 其相对湿度略高于冰川.     

Observations of wind and waves in the central Bay of Bengal during BOBMEX-99 and their effect on mixed layer depth variability due to forced mixing

Time-series wind and wave measurements were carried out onboard INS Sagardhwani in the central Bay of Bengal during BOBMEX-99. Various other marine meteorological and oceanographic measurements relevant to monsoon studies were also collected simultaneously. The observed variations of wind and waves and the associated mixed layer depth (MLD) variability based on both temperature and density criteria at 3 hourly intervals are presented in this paper as a case study. At the time-series location (13‡N, 87‡E) wind varied between 6 and 16m/s and the predominant direction was southwesterly. The significant wave height and period varied from 1.9 to 3.7m and 8 to 13 s respectively. Some of the available statistical predictive methods for the determination of MLD by forced mixing are utilized to test the extent of mechanical mixing within the top layer of water by the local wind and wave activity. The same is extended to formulate a new empirical relation for gross estimation of effective depth within which the sound energy is generally trapped during its transmission in the surface duct. The present analysis aiming for estimation of observed MLD variability (35 to 75 m) using the suggested simple empirical relation reveals that, the mixed layer variability observed during the experiment depends on both local ocean variability as well as remote forcing as reported earlier.     

Sediment‐rich meltwater plumes and ice‐proximal fans at the margins of modern and ancient tidewater glaciers: Observations and modelling

Turbid meltwater plumes and ice‐proximal fans occur where subglacial streams reach the grounded marine margins of modern and ancient tidewater glaciers. However, the spacing and temporal stability of these subglacial channels is poorly understood. This has significant implications for understanding the geometry and distribution of Quaternary and ancient ice‐proximal fans that can form important aquifers and hydrocarbon reservoirs. Remote‐sensing and numerical‐modelling techniques are applied to the 200 km long marine margin of a Svalbard ice cap, Austfonna, to quantify turbid meltwater‐plume distribution and predict its temporal stability. Results are combined with observations from geophysical data close to the modern ice front to refine existing depositional models for ice‐proximal fans. Plumes are spaced ca 3 km apart and their distribution along the ice front is stable over decades. Numerical modelling also predicts the drainage pattern and meltwater discharge beneath the ice cap; modelled water‐routing patterns are in reasonable agreement with satellite‐mapped plume locations. However, glacial retreat of several kilometres over the past 40 years has limited build‐up of significant ice‐proximal fans. A single fan and moraine ridge is noted from marine‐geophysical surveys. Closer to the ice front there are smaller recessional moraines and polygonal sediment lobes but no identifiable fans. Schematic models of ice‐proximal deposits represent varying glacier‐terminus stability: (i) stable terminus where meltwater sedimentation produces an ice‐proximal fan; (ii) quasi‐stable terminus, where glacier readvance pushes or thrusts up ice‐proximal deposits into a morainal bank; and (iii) retreating terminus, with short still‐stands, allowing only small sediment lobes to build up at melt‐stream portals. These modern investigations are complemented with outcrop and subsurface observations and numerical modelling of an ancient, Ordovician glacial system. Thick turbidite successions and large fans in the Late Ordovician suggest either high‐magnitude events or sustained high discharge, consistent with a relatively mild palaeo‐glacial setting for the former North African ice sheet.     

Formation of lode‐style gold mineralisation during Tabberabberan wrench faulting at Lefroy,eastern Tasmania

The Lefroy Goldfield in eastern Tasmania is anomalous in southeastern Australia because mineralised fault reefs (i.e. reefs that are also faults) strike in an easterly direction at a high angle to the predominantly northwest strike of bedding and folds. Gold mineralisation is of Early to Middle Devonian age, with reef formation coinciding with a third regionally compressive deformation event (D₃), and a second phase of Tabberabberan orogenesis. Mineralised reefs are hosted by Mathinna Supergroup turbidites of Cambrian to Ordovician age and extend for up to 2 km across the boundary between the sandstone‐dominated Stony Head Sandstone and the shale‐dominated Turquoise Bluff Slate. Ore shoots in the reefs plunge moderately west and, in the Volunteer Mine, coincide with the intersection of the reef and a D₁/D₂ thrust contact. The subvertical orientation and discordant relationship of the mineralised reefs to bedding, as well as the lack of gold mineralisation along bedding and pre‐D₃ structures, indicate that the reefs formed during a period of wrench faulting. In contrast to lode‐style deposits in Victoria, the far‐field minimum compressive stress at Lefroy during reef formation was not vertical but, rather, occupied a subhorizontal orientation.     

典型海洋型冰川区消融期雪坑层位演变及离子沉积后过程初探

2006年4—7月,在玉龙雪山白水1号冰川消融区(P1)和积累区(P2)分别开挖雪坑连进行续观测,分析了海洋型冰川在消融期雪坑内各层位的物理变化以及各离子的沉积后过程.结果表明:海洋型冰川区雪坑的消融速率远大于大陆型冰川;随着消融的进行,雪坑中各种粒雪成分逐渐向粗粒雪转化,同时冰片数量增多以及含水层加厚,并且向雪坑底部移动.雪坑消融可以分为雪坑内部的细粒雪、中粒雪向粗粒雪转变,雪坑厚度变化不大以及雪坑厚度的快速变薄两个过程,P2处两消融过程转变时间比P1处大约推迟两个月.根据各种离子在P1处雪坑剖面的浓度变化,白水1号冰川积累区的淋溶序列为:K+SO42-NO3-Cl-Ca2+Mg2+Na+.由于海洋型冰川的消融期也是它的积累期,该序列中各离子的顺序不仅反映了融水淋溶作用的影响,同时反映了物质输入对雪坑内离子浓度变化的影响.     

Glacier Changes at Svartisen,Northern Norway,during the Last 125 Years:Influence of Climate and Other Factors

The two ice caps of Svartisen,at the latitude of the Arctic Circle in Norway,supply 60 glaciers,ranging in size from >50 to <1 km2.Until the last two decades of the 19th century,the glaciers remained close to their maximum recent(Little Ice Age) size.In response to the prevailing 20th century climate,they have become smaller,but the changes have varied between glaciers.Climatic factors have not been the sole control of the variations.The response times of small,steep glaciers are shorter than those of the l...     

北半球大冰期(约2.73 Ma)前后北太平洋风尘沉积突变

距今约2.73 Ma,北半球高纬地区冰盖急剧发展,北半球大冰期来临,成为最引人注目的事件。北半球大冰期成因已有诸多解释,其中之一是大陆干旱化加剧,输入到大洋的粉尘增多引起海洋铁肥效应增强和生物量增多,吸收了更多大气CO2,使得地球变冷和冰盖增加。作为全球第二大粉尘释放中心,亚洲内陆干旱区释放的粉尘是北太平洋沉积物中主要陆源组分之一。开展北半球大冰期前后西北太平洋沉积物记录的亚洲粉尘研究,有助于深入认识风尘铁肥效应对北半球大冰期形成的可能贡献。文章依据大洋钻探计划（Ocean Drilling Program,简称ODP）198航次西北太平洋1208钻孔（共钻取沉积物392.3 m;本研究深度121.3 m至130.1 m,时间段为2.62 Ma至2.85 Ma）北半球大冰期前后的高分辨率（约2500年）样品,提取了沉积物中的"风尘组分",计算了风尘通量,研究了风尘通量变化和海洋生产力之间的关联。研究结果显示,约2.73 Ma以来,1208钻孔风尘通量快速增加,已发表的该孔的海洋生产力也表现出快速增加,海水表面温度也快速降低,说明粉尘对海洋的铁肥效应可能是触发北半球大冰期形成的重要因素。文章还测试了"风尘组分"的Nd和Sr同位素,研究了粉尘物源变动。结果显示,塔克拉玛干沙漠是北半球大冰期前后1208钻孔粉尘的主要物源,其中2.73 Ma至2.85 Ma期间Nd和Sr同位素波动较大,推测与火山灰含量较多和戈壁粉尘沉积有关,位置偏北的西风可能是部分戈壁粉尘长距离运输至北太平洋的主要营力。2.73 Ma以来,北极冰盖大量发育,西风位置南移,主要运输塔克拉玛干沙漠粉尘至北太平洋,使得Nd和Sr同位素波动较小,但其中2.72 Ma至2.70 Ma期间出现的Nd同位素偏正、Sr同位素变小很可能是火山灰的突然大量沉积造成的。     

Features of discrete VLF emissions observed at Gulmarg,India during the magnetic storm of 6–7 March, 1986

During the analysis of archived VLF data from Indian low latitude ground stations, some discrete VLF emissions recorded at the low latitude ground station Gulmarg (geomagnetic latitude 24°26′N; geomagnetic longitude 147°09′E, L = 1.28) during moderate magnetic storm activity (Σ K _P ⁻ = 32, K _P index varies from 4 to 6 during the observation period) on 6/7 March, 1986 are presented in this paper. The dynamic spectra of these discrete VLF emissions were observed along with tweeks and its harmonics, which is interesting and complex to explain. In most of the events the harmonic frequency of tweeks correlates with the starting frequency of harmonics of discrete emissions. In order to explain the observed features of discrete VLF emissions, we propose cyclotron resonance interaction between whistler mode wave and energetic electrons of inner radiation belt as possible generation mechanism. An attempt is also made to determine parallel energy, anisotropy and wave growth relevant to the generation process of VLF emissions.     

Focal parameters of seismic sources during the 1981 and 1983 eruption at Mt. Etna volcano (Sicily,Italy)

In this study 50 seismic events, preceding and accompanying the eruptions occurring in 1981 and 1983, have been considered. Seismic moments, fault radii, stress drops and seismic energies have been calculated using Brune’s model (J Geophys Res 75:4997–5009, 1970; J Geophys Res 76:5002, 1971); site, anelastic attenuation along the propagation path, geometrical spreading and interaction with the free surface effects are taken into account. For each event we have also estimated the equivalent Wood–Anderson magnitude (MWAeq) (Scherbaum and Stoll in Bull Seism Soc Am 73:1321–1343, 1983); relations among all these source parameters have been determined. Furthermore, the hypothesis of self-similarity (Aki in J Geophys Res 72:1217–1231, 1967) is not verified for events with seismic moments <10¹² N-m: in fact the relationship between log-stress drop and log-moment is linear up to a moment of 10¹² N-m (events of 1981 eruption), while for higher moments (events of 1983 eruption) the slope of the regression line is not significantly different from zero. We suppose that such a behaviour is related to a heterogeneous medium with barriers on the faults. Finally, the main conclusion is that eruptions of 1981 and 1983 differ from one another both in eruptive and seismic aspects; analysis of seismic energies indicates an increase in Mt. Etna’s activity, confirmed by studies performed on the following lateral eruption of 1991–1993 (Patanè et al. in Bull Volcanol 47:941–952, 1995), occurring on the same structural trend.     

1981-2010年三江平原40～320cm深地温变化特征

利用1981-2010年黑龙江佳木斯气象站40～320cm逐月平均地温观测资料,研究了三江平原地温变化规律、气候突变、异常年份及冻融特征等.结果表明:40～320cm年平均地温呈极显著升温趋势,升幅为0.496～0.574℃.(10a)-1,其中夏季升幅最大;月平均地温呈波形变化,振幅随深度增加而减小;1月随着深度的增加地温逐渐增大,7月地温随深度增加而减小,维持正梯度.除秋季40cm和80cm,冬季320cm平均地温变化相对平稳,未出现地温突变现象,其他各层年、季平均地温均发生了突变;40cm和80cm年平均地温在1981年出现了异常偏冷,320cm年平均地温在20世纪90年代末出现了异常偏冷,40cm和160cm年平均地温在2004年出现了异常偏暖;80cm土壤较40cm冻融时间出现晚,冻结期缩短18d左右,土壤的冻结过程比消融过程要快.     

Process Analysis of In-situ Strain during the Ms8.0 Wenchuan Earthquake—Data from the Stress Monitoring Station at Shandan

Abstract: There were huge life and property losses during the Ms8.0 Wenchuan earthquake on May 12, 2008. Strain fluctuation curves were completely recorded at stress observatory stations in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau and its surroundings in the process of the earthquake. This paper introduces the geological background of the Wenchuan earthquake and the profile of in-situ stress monitoring stations. In particular, data of 174 earthquakes (Ms4.0-Ms8.5) were processed and analyzed with various methods, which were recorded at the Shandan station from August 2007 to December 2008. The results were compared with other seismic data, and further analyses were done for the recoded strain seismic waves, co-seismic strain stepovers, pre-earthquake strain valleys, Earth’s free oscillations before and after the earthquake and their physical implications. During the Wenchuan earthquake, the strainmeter recorded a huge extensional strain of 70 seconds, which shows that the Wenchuan earthquake is a rupture process predominated by thrusting. Significant precursory strain anomalies were detected 48 hours, 30 hours, 8 hours and 37 minutes before the earthquake. The anomalies are very high and their forms are very similar to that of the main shock. Similar anomalies can also be found in strain curves of other shocks greater than Ms7.0, indicating that such anomalies are prevalent before a great earthquake. In this paper, it is shown that medium aftershocks (Ms5.5-6.0) can also cause Earth’s free oscillations. Study of free oscillations is of great significance to understand the internal structure of the Earth and focal mechanisms of earthquakes and to recognize slow shocks, thus providing a scientific basis for the prevention and treatment of geological disasters and the prediction of future earthquakes.