Geology and utilization of underground space in metropolitan Kansas City area, USA

 Kansas City is the international leader in the commercial development of mined-out areas for warehousing, manufacturing, offices, business, and service-related activities. Over 3000 people work underground at about two dozen sites with a combined floor space of almost 2 sq km. Most of the space was created after mining a 6-m-thick bed of limestone that underlies the city and its environs. The most common usage of the space is for storage. The mined-out area can be converted to warehouse storage at a fraction of the cost of a comparable surface facility. Received: 2 October 1995 · Accepted: 6 November 1995     

Carboniferous Mixed Terrigenous Clastic, Carbonate and Sulphate Sediments in the Bachu Area, Xinjiang

The Carboniferous system in the Xiaohaizi area, Bachu County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, composed of typical mixed terrigenous clastic, carbonate and sulphate sediments, was mainly deposited in the tidal flat and lagoon environments. The mixed sediments occur as the following eleven types: 1. limestone intercalated with siltstone; 2. interbeds of shale and limestone; 3. gypsolyte interbedded with limestone; 4. gypsolyte intercalated with siltstone; 5. gypsolyte interbedded with shale; 6. gypsolyte intercalated with siltstone, limestone and dolomite; 7. siltstone interbedded with gypsolyte and limestone; 8. terrigenous detritus scattered in carbonate matrix; 9. carbonate as cement in clastic rocks; 10. mixed sediments of carbonate and terrigenous mud; 11. mixed sediments of carbonate grains with terrigenous sand. Based on the analysis of the dynamic mechanism of mixed sediments, it is believed that these types of mixed sediments in the study area were controlled by climate, sea level change and so     

Vegetation change,erosion risk and land management on the Nullarbor Plain,Australia

 Arid karst landscapes that have been degraded by human activities provide a challenge for rehabilitation and an opportunity to test ideas about the stability and resilience of limestone ecosystems. The Nullarbor Plain is the largest arid karst area in Australia (220 000 km²) and is divided into extensive closed karstic depressions separated by low rocky ridges, while the dominant vegetation is chenopod shrubland. Since European settlement there has been considerable change in the vegetation, with significant reduction in shrub and grass cover over large areas of the plain. These changes are related to a state and transition model of vegetation dynamics which incorporates climatic variability, fire history and grazing pressure from sheep, kangaroos and rabbits. A partial sediment budget using ¹³⁷Cs inventories reveals local and regional patterns of soil redistribution within this arid karst landscape. Rehabilitation of eroded soil in pastoral lands has been accomplished at several sites but is labour intensive and vulnerable to climatic fluctuations. Given the low stock numbers, limited number of people involved, and poor economic returns, it would be sensible to make pastoral activities on the Nullarbor secondary to conservation priorities. This would necessitate a change in land ethic to stewardship, with emphasis on rehabilitation and control of feral animals. Management of increased numbers of visitors to the caves and karst also requires that resource inventories and management plans for each area be drawn up and used. Received: 1 June 1995 · Accepted: 4 December 1995     

桌子山中奥陶统克里摩里组下段稀土元素特征与沉积介质分析

鄂尔多斯盆地西缘北部的内蒙古桌子山地区奥陶纪地层出露完整,沉积类型丰富,是研究鄂尔多斯盆地西缘奥陶纪沉积的关键地区。该区在中奥陶世时位于从浅海向深海的转换部位,达瑞威尔期沉积的克里摩里组由深灰色薄层状石灰岩和灰黑色泥岩组成,是研究鄂尔多斯盆地西缘奥陶纪深水氧化-还原条件的一个较为理想的层位。本文在详细的野外观察基础上,测试克里摩里组薄层细粉晶-泥晶石灰岩和灰黑色泥岩的稀土元素（REY）和其他与氧化-还原条件相关的微量元素,主要包括V、Cr、Ni、Co等,着重分析探讨其形成时的氧化-还原条件。结果表明：1）石灰岩和泥岩稀土总量（REE）分别为28.18×10^-6和100.37×10^-6,轻、重稀土比值分别为9.60和9.69;2）石灰岩和泥岩稀土元素Y/Ho、（La/Yb）_N、（La/Sm）_N、（La/Nd）_N值分别为29.01、1.35、0.92、0.95和25.72、1.21、0.96、1.02;3）石灰岩无Ce负异常或具有微弱的正异常,同时具有明显的Eu正异常,泥岩具有明显的Ce负异常和较弱的Eu正异常;4）石灰岩和泥岩的其他微量元素比值V/Cr、V/（V+Ni）、Ni/Co分别为1.10、0.62、7.75和3.54、0.89、5.15。依据本文研究结果,结合沉积特征和前人研究成果可以推测,克里摩里组沉积于风暴浪基面之下,远离海岸,但同时又受淡水影响,其中石灰岩形成于氧化环境,泥岩形成于还原环境,同一沉积背景下这种氧化与还原环境的交替是由等深暖流造成的,可称为水动力氧化环境。     

Dating in the Craven Dales

The Craven Dales of North Yorkshire contain some of the finest examples of limestone geology and landscape in the UK. The extensive limestone pavements with their clints, grikes and other water‐worn features, are a key attraction for both scientists and recreational visitors. Likewise the cave systems attract attention with their remarkable sediment accumulations, some of which are in excess of 500 000 years old and others contain the bones of mammals that are either extinct or no longer present in the British Isles. The glacial erratic boulders at Norber and the loessic sediments that, in places, mask the limestone have also provided stimulus for investigation. Summarized below are the findings of several recent studies that focussed on establishing the age of various features. Whilst the reports answer some long‐standing questions, they also demonstrate that there is still much that can be learned about this seemingly familiar territory.     

华北邯邢地区奥灰中统三组八段测井曲线特征

华北邯邢地区奥陶系中统灰岩平均厚度562m,分为三组八段,与上覆石炭系煤系地层呈不整合关系,为本地区主要含水地层。为消除下组煤开采威胁、有效防治奥灰水,必须对下伏灰岩各组段给予准确划分。根据该区奥陶系中统灰岩的沉积规律和物性特征,对各组段地层的单一测井曲线特征及多种物性曲线组合特征进行分析,确定了物性标志稳定、连续性强、全区可追踪对比的各组段地层醒目划分标志。鉴于本区自然伽马曲线形态的稳定性,利用数理统计方法对本区40个钻孔进行各组段自然伽马峰值几率计算,求得各组段自然伽马峰值几率表,并以东庞矿观2孔自然伽马曲线奥灰地层中的一段（O2f1）为例,介绍使用该表确定灰岩组段的方法。     

滇西北衙地区热水岩溶作用及其伴生的地质灾害

报道了滇西北衙地区新发现的热水角砾岩及其显示的热水岩溶与伴生地质灾害的特征。北衙地区热水角砾岩和热水岩溶可分为 4种类型和层次,即①地表相爆发-沉积作用形成的沉积凝灰-角砾岩、热水沉积鲕状灰岩与钙华胶结角砾岩;②与近地表洞穴沉积和垮塌作用有关的热水沉积砾岩和汽爆射流角砾岩;③与热水通道相蚀裂和爆破角砾化作用有关的网络状灰岩角砾岩筒和热水隐爆角砾岩筒;④深部相热水浸煮-蚀变灰岩。除深部相浸煮蚀变作用外,其余 3种热水岩溶作用都可伴生和引起地质灾害。万洞山-五里排一带呈席状覆盖于第三系河湖相的砂砾岩和粘土沉积之上的灰岩质热水角砾岩为一套从陈家庄角砾岩筒滑覆过来的热水角砾岩滑体,其可能是造成金沙江古河道淤塞并使古金沙江改道和形成大拐弯的主要原因。     

鄂尔多斯盆地太原组致密灰岩天然气成藏地质特征与勘探潜力

2021年鄂尔多斯盆地榆探*H在太原组灰岩完钻喜获日产超50万m³的高产工业气流,勘探取得重大突破,同时还有700余口探井在太原组灰岩见到明显的含气显示,展示了盆地太原组灰岩良好的潜力,对于重新认识盆地太原组灰岩勘探领域具有极其重大的地质意义。对该区烃源岩特征、沉积环境、储集特征及成藏组合等进行综合研究表明：(1)太原组灰岩为陆表海碳酸盐沉积,发育生屑滩、生物丘有利沉积相带,沉积大面积分布的生屑粉晶灰岩、藻黏结灰岩,经准同生期短暂的大气淡水淋滤后,可形成有利储层;(2)太原组灰岩发育多类型储集空间,溶孔、亚微米级及纳米级晶间微孔、微裂缝等叠置组合发育,构成立体网络储集空间,平面上,横山—靖边—志丹生屑粉晶灰岩储层发育,厚4～10 m,佳县—子洲—清涧地区藻黏结灰岩储层发育,厚2～6 m;(3)发育“三明治”成藏模式,灰岩储层夹在主力煤系烃源岩之间,生成的天然气通过断裂、裂缝进入灰岩储层聚集,形成岩性气藏,横山—靖边地区的生屑滩和子洲—清涧的生物丘是太原组灰岩有利勘探区,面积约为1.5万km²,有望形成天然气增储上产的现实领域。     

寿阳段王煤矿奥灰岩溶水富水性研究

段王煤矿位于沁水煤田北部边缘,多年的开采已使第四系松散孔隙潜水和石炭-二叠系碎屑岩裂隙水基本疏干。区内有供水意义的含水层为奥陶系岩溶裂隙水。通过对区内奥灰岩地层岩性及富水性的分析研究,说明上马家沟组中、上段（0252.3）为区内的富水层段。奥灰岩水位在区内埋藏较深,静止水位为575～655m。奥灰岩溶水在垂向上表现为随着埋深的增大,岩溶发育程度减弱,富水性变弱,在水平方向上表现为北部富水性弱,南部较强的特点。奥灰水在本区西北奥灰裸露处得到降水补给后,向东南径流,途经矿区,至娘子关排泄,其水位具有逐年下降的趋势。奥灰水的变化规律通过区内两水井的抽水试验结果对比也得到了佐证。     

炭质灰岩地区抽水致塌控制因素和影响因素

为研究炭质灰岩地区抽水致塌控制因素和影响因素,通过电法物探、地质钻探及抽水致塌试验相结合的综合手段,对兴安县石炭系下统岩关组（C₁y）炭质灰岩地区的岩溶塌陷进行关联分析,建立降深水位与时间、恢复水位与时间的关系对比曲线。研究结果表明:在炭质灰岩地区进行抽水活动时,其主要补给源为小溶洞内储存水,运输通道为岩溶裂隙;该炭质灰岩地区岩溶裂隙具有不规则性,因此,在同类地层中测得的渗透系数k及影响半径R有较大差异;研究区域内抽水致塌的位置受地质构造的影响较为明显;钻井人为抽水致塌受多种因素共同作用影响,而地下水位升降为主要影响因素。     

The legal protection of limestone pavements in Great Britain

The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 was passed to provide strengthened legal protection for threatened wildlife and environmental features in Britain. Limestone pavements were included specifically in section 34 of this act because their unique features were being damaged or destroyed through various causes. Limestone Pavement Orders (LPOs) are made under this act. This review considers why this protection became necessary, how the legislation is being implemented, what problems have arisen during implementation, and what progress has been made in making LPOs. Enforcement of the law, monitoring of sites after LPOs have been made, and management of pavement sites are discussed with reference to limestone pavements in NW England. Effectiveness of the legislation is difficult to assess because legal processes are incomplete, but there are indications that it is being effective in Britain. However, commercial threats to these landforms may simply have been shifted to Eire. The British experience with legal protection of these fragile karst features may aid conservationists in other nations.     

Turonian Rudist Facies from Abu Roash area,North Western Desert,Egypt

Five radiolitid rudist species are described from the Turonian sequence of Abu Roash area. They are recognized in three rudist biostromes that occur in two informal members of Abu Roash Formation; the Rudist- and the Actaeonella-bearing limestone–marl members. The three biostromes show autochthonous and parautochthonous fabrics and moderate to high packing potential. The first rudist biostrome at the base of the Rudist-bearing limestone–marl member (Middle Turonian) contains Durania gaensis, Praeradiolites ponsianus and Bournonia fourtaui. The second biostrome in the same member consists of Bournonia roashensis. The third biostrome that recognized in the Actaeonella-bearing limestone–marl member (Late Turonian) consists of Durania arnaudi. Rudist biostromes in the Rudist-bearing limestone–marl member were deposited on subtidal rudist shoals with moderate to high energy versus that of the Actaeonella-bearing limestone–marl member that deposited in low to moderate energy on deeper part of subtidal rudist shoals. The exposed Turonian succession at Abu Roash area could be divided into three depositional sequences bounded by three sequence boundaries (paleosols and angular unconformity).The first rudist biostrome in the Rudist-bearing limestone–marl member represents the lower part of the transgressive systems tract of the first depositional sequence. The deepening upward trend of the transgressive systems tract is due to increase of accommodation space in transgressive context during relative sea-level rise episode. On the other hand, the second rudist biostrome in the Rudist-bearing limestone–marl member and the third rudist biostrome in the Actaeonella-bearing limestone–marl member are in shallowing-upward set sequence forming the highstand systems tract of the first and third depositional sequences. This indicates that, the accommodation space was being filled more rapidly than was being created during the highstand stage.     

Three–Dimensional Isotopic Characteristics of Crystalline Limestone around the Sakonishi Zn Ore Bodies in the Kamioka Mining District, Japan

Abstract: Predominant Zn-rich ore bodies were found to a deep part of the Sakonishi area in the Kamioka mining district, Japan. The ore mineralization was recognized at 230 to 300m above sea level in the Sakonishi area. Since crystalline limestone is broadly distributed over the area, and the variation in isotopic composition is easily detected, the isotopic prospecting should be powerful in surveying of the extent of the ore bodies and the related hydrothermal system. Although isotopic anomalies have been extracted two-dimensionally so far, three-dimensional information is possibly more powerful. In this paper, Zn-rich ore bodies in the Sakonishi area are treated as hydrothermal ore deposits, and the importance of the activity of hydrothermal fluids during mineralization is emphasized. Oxygen and carbon isotopic ‘iso–surfaces’ are three-dimensionally calculated for the Sakonishi area. The δ¹⁸O values of crystalline limestone from the surface and from the drill holes range from +8. 1 to +21. 1% and from –2. 7 to +20. 4%, respectively. The δ¹³C values of crystalline limestone from the surface and from the drill holes range from –1. 0 to +5. 3% and from –7. 7 to +4. 6%, respectively. The oxygen and carbon iso-topic ratios at the mineralization level are extremely low, but there are exceptions as to carbon isotopes. The oxygen isotopic ratios of crystalline limestone may decrease by isotopic exchange reaction with a hydrothermal fluid, while the carbon isotopic ratios slightly change. Since the precipitated calcite from a hydrothermal fluid has low carbon isotopic ratio and various oxygen isotopic ratio depending on the formation temperature, the bulk sample of crystalline limestone containing the precipitated calcite has oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of relatively low values accordingly. Thus the decrease mechanism for carbon isotopic ratio of crystalline limestone is different from that for oxygen isotopic ratio. Samples with the carbon isotopic ratio of –4 to –8% are considered to be crystallized from hydrothermal fluids. Since the oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of crystalline limestone at the ore mineralization level are low, the ore bodies are considered to have formed by a prominent hydrothermal activity. Thus oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios of crystalline limestone can be used as an indicator of the related hydrothermal activity. The alteration such as chloritization is intense near fractures in the Sakonishi area, showing that the hydrothermal system is controlled by a fracture system. It is assumed that the decreased isotopic ratios indicate the high degree of reactivity with hydrothermal fluids, and the depleted zone in oxygen and carbon isotopes may correspond to the conduit of the hydrothermal fluids.     

山西七元矿岩溶水赋存运移特征及底板突水分析

七元煤矿位于山西省寿阳县东部,主釆煤层为太原组15号煤,煤层底板之下的奥灰岩溶水对釆煤存在潜在危胁。为此对该矿区奥灰岩溶水的赋存运移特征及15号煤层底板突水情况进行分析,结果显示：井田位于区域奥灰水径流区的中部,,径流条件较好;15号煤层的水位线总体特征为北西部高,东南部低,地下水自西北至东南径流。经计算,采区的突水系数为0.047MPa/m,推测该区碱奥灰岩溶水对15号煤层的开釆没有影响。     

贵州豹子洞石灰岩与红土型金矿藓类植物比较研究

红土型金矿是岩溶地区新发现的一类金矿类型,其特点是石灰岩基岩与金矿红土混生。为了探索岩溶地区苔藓植物特征, 2004年8月我们对贵州安龙县豹子洞石灰岩和红土型金矿苔藓植物进行了比较研究。野外在红土型金矿区和石灰岩各设5个采样点, 共观察和采集了105份苔藓标本。对苔藓植物的区系组成、地理成分、结构及物种多样性进行统计分析,结果表明: 该地区两种基质上共有40种,隶属9科25属,未发现苔类和角苔类。其中,石灰岩上有7科、11属、12种藓类植物; 红土型金矿上有6科、18属、28种藓类植物。豹子洞石灰岩与红土型金矿区藓类植物其种相似性系数为0. 05。Sha nno n-Wiene r 指数和种间相遇机率指数较低, Simpso n 指数则较高,表明苔藓植物分布受基质影响明显。      

Organic walled microbiota from the silicified algal clasts, Bhander limestone, Satna area, Madhya Pradesh

A good assemblage of organic-walled microbiota has been discovered from the petrographic thin sections of the black-bedded chert of the Bhander limestone, exposed at Sajjanpur area of Satna district and Ramnoi area of Rewa District, Madhya Pradesh. The assemblage is made up of the following forms: Synodophycus euthemos, Myxococcoides minor, Coniunctiophycus gaoyuzhuangense, Siphonophycus kestron, Siphonophycus robustum, Eoentophysalis magna, Glenobotrydion aenigmatis and Huroniospora microreticulata. The assemblage comprises both filamentous as well as coccoidal forms of cyanobacterial affinity. The forms are associated with algal clasts.     

沾化凹陷长堤地区沙一段生物灰岩发育模式及分布特征

沾化凹陷长堤地区沙一段属于低勘探层段,目前在沙一段下部生物灰岩中钻遇高产油气,沙一段生物灰岩成为勘探热点,而生物灰岩发育模式及分布特征认识不清。以岩芯、录井、测井及三维地震资料为基础,对工区生物灰岩进行系统研究,取得以下几方面认识:1）结合前人层序划分基础,依据地震及井孔资料,将沙一段作为一个三级层序,并利用高频层序划分原理,将沙一段下部细分为三个四级层序,而生物灰岩发育于三个四级层序中;2）生物灰岩分布受古气候、相对古水深和古地貌控制,研究区沙一段时期为亚热带湿润-干旱气候,微咸水湖泊环境,生物灰岩发育在湖平面动荡的湖退体系域中,相对古水深处于稳定的下降过程,录井资料证实生物灰岩多分布于古地貌西南部缓坡及东部洼槽;3）依据主控因素建立生物滩发育模式,划分为缓坡生物滩发育模式和洼槽生物滩发育模式,并确定研究区生物灰岩内幕演化过程,指明研究区发育三期生物灰岩,三期生物灰岩依次向北部长堤潜山呈退积迁移;4）通过对四级层序中生物灰岩垂向发育特征和平面展布特征的分析,并基于敏感地震属性平面分布预测,结合古地貌,确定研究区生物灰岩呈南厚北薄,东部洼槽发育较厚,条带状分布的特征。最后,确定了长堤地区沙一段下部生物灰岩发育模式及分布特征,深化了湖相生物灰发育模式理论研究,为济阳坳陷沙一段特殊岩性油藏勘探和圈闭优选提供指导。     

西藏南羌塘盆地中侏罗世布曲组地层特征

南羌塘盆地布曲组广泛分布,主要岩性为灰—灰黑色粉屑灰岩、砂屑粉屑灰岩,夹少量粉屑微晶灰岩、微晶灰岩及泥质灰岩。古油气藏分布区布曲组中部产特征的鲕粒灰岩、颗粒白云岩、礁灰岩。其中产腕足、双壳、菊石等化石,时代为中侏罗世巴通阶(Bathonian)。沉积环境为属滨海前滨环境—咸化潟湖相静水环境。     

Geochemistry of the limestone of Mortas Formation and related terra rossa,Seydisehir, Konya,Turkey

The purpose of this study was to determine and evaluate the geochemical characteristics of the limestone of the Upper Cretaceous Mortas Formation and related terra rossa in a 50 km² area which is located 20 km south of the city of Seydisehir, Central Anatolia, by using data obtained from the ICP-MS analysis of randomly collected 42 samples of limestone and 18 samples of the terra rossa.The limestone of the Mortas Formation is composed of fossilliferous, gray-cream colored, medium to thick bedded, partially dolomitic carbonate rocks, and generally has dismicrite, intrapelmicrite composition. It includes the largest bauxite reservior in Turkey and has many occurences of terra rossa formation on it. According to mean distance, the Ba, Be, Hg, Mo, Nb, Sb and Th concentrations in the limestones overlying and underlying the bauxite deposits are different, but the main oxides, REE and other trace elements are same. In factor analysis, the first component reflects relative enrichment of clay against to CaO contents of the limestone, the second component corresponds to the degree of dolomitization. The PAAS-normalized REEs pattern for the Mortas Formation limestone samples illustrate similar main features as seawater.The terra rossa soils in the study area are considered to be highly weathered and weakly mature soil with respect to their generally low Al₂O₃ (21%), but high CaO (2%) contents, and their alteration indices. The element ratios in the terra rossa and limestone show that in the process of the transformation from limestone to terra rossa, Ba, Si, Ti, Al and Fe were enriched together by staying in-situ. Except Ce, all lanthanides show similar behavior, but the HREE, which were richer in limestone, were consumed fast relative to the LREE during soil formation. The association and the enrichment of Co, Cu, Cr, Ni and Pb as well as Ba, Zr, Ga, Nb and Rb in soil relative to the limestone are interpreted as being resulted from eolian transportation. Ca, Au, Hg, Sr, Se, Sb, Mo, Ag, U, Cd and Na were found to be the most mobile elements during pedogenic transformation. According to main oxide composition ratios of the limestone and terra rossa, the soils were described as representing a well washed soil completing the leaching and accumulation phase, but not totally completing the silicate weathering phase. In the processes of soil formation, 97.76% of the limestone was washed away; only 2.24% of limestone was deposited as soil. Therefore, 61 times mass reduction was realized.     

皖北宿州地区寒武系豹皮灰岩地球化学特征及其地质意义

为研究宿州地区寒武系豹皮灰岩地球化学特征及其地质意义,对研究区岩石进行了系统鉴定,并对其主量元素和微量元素进行了地球化学测试。结果显示:寒武系豹皮灰Ti含量、Er/Nd、Y/Ho值均偏低,反应其形成过程中受到陆源碎屑的影响。元素具有明显的U、Pb、Sr、Sm富集及Ba、Nb、Ce、Pr、Zr亏损,稀土总量为3.07×10~(-6)~7.00×10~(-6)(平均为5.33×10~(-6)),低于典型海相灰岩值。V含量较低,V/Cr比值在1.02~1.73之间,说明豹皮灰岩形成于氧化环境;Sr/Ba异常值较高,反映了高度咸化条件下的海相沉积;Sr/Cu值暗示了干旱的气候条件。综合前述认识,研究区豹皮灰岩应形成于局限碳酸盐岩台地环境。