Elastic fields in two joined transversely isotropic media of infinite extent as a result of rectangular loading

This paper presents the closed‐form solutions for the elastic fields in two bonded rocks induced by rectangular loadings. Each of the two bonded rocks behaves as a transversely isotropic linear elastic solid of semi‐infinite extent. They are completely bonded together at a horizontal surface. The rectangular loadings are body forces along either vertical or horizontal directions and are uniformly applied on a rectangular area. The rectangular area is embedded in the two bonded rocks and is parallel to the horizontal interface. The classical integral transforms are used in the solution formulation, and the elastic solutions are expressed in the forms of elementary harmonic functions for the rectangular loadings. The stresses and displacements in the rocks induced by both the horizontal and vertical body forces are also presented. The numerical results illustrate the important effect of the anisotropic bimaterial properties on the stress and displacement fields. The solutions can be easily implemented for numerical calculations and applied to problems encountered in rock mechanics and engineering. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The texture of cross-micas in rocks affected by schistosity-parallel displacements

Cross-micas are described in a rock for which relative displacements from sliding on schistosity planes have previously been demonstrated. Individual cross-micas in these rocks have incurred similar displacements along (001) surfaces. Shear strain on planes parallel to (001) in each cross-mica is determined and plotted on a map of the surface being investigated. The distribution illustrates that higher shear strains are found in cross-micas that are close to translation surfaces along which garnet porphyroblasts have been sliced into tabular sections.The study illustrated in this paper could be extended to other types of cross-micas and may prove to be a useful method for the investigation of strain history in foliated rocks.     

Quartz–garnet isotope thermometry in the southern Adirondack Highlands (Grenville Province, New York)

Quartz–garnet oxygen isotope thermometry of quartz‐rich metasedimentary rocks from the southern Adirondack Highlands (Grenville Province, New York) yields metamorphic temperatures of 700–800 °C, consistent with granulite facies mineral assemblages. Samples from the Irving Pond quartzite record Δ¹⁸O(Qtz–Grt) = 2.68 ± 0.21‰ (1 s.d. , n = 15), corresponding to peak metamorphic conditions of 734 ± 38 °C. This agrees well with the estimates from garnet–biotite exchange thermometry. Similar temperature estimates are obtained from Swede Pond (682 ± 47 °C, n = 3) and King's Station (c. 700 °C). The Whitehall area records higher temperatures (798 ± 25 °C, n = 3). All of these temperatures are higher than previous regional temperature estimates. The c. 800 °C temperatures near Whitehall are consistent with preservation of pre‐granulite contact temperatures adjacent to anorthosite. The preservation of peak metamorphic temperatures in garnet of all sizes is consistent with slow oxygen diffusion in garnet, and closure temperatures of at least 730 °C. Peak metamorphic fractionations are preserved in rocks with varying quartz:feldspar ratios, indicating that the modal percentage of feldspar does not affect retrograde oxygen exchange in these rocks. The lack of this correlation suggests slow rates of oxygen diffusion in quartz and feldspar, consistent with the results of anhydrous oxygen diffusion experiments.     

Contrasting retrograde oxygen isotope exchange behaviour and implications: examples from the Langtang Valley, Nepal

Quantitative modelling of oxygen exchange by diffusion during slow cooling has been compared to the observed oxygen isotope distributions from high-grade metamorphic and granitic rocks of the High Himalayan Crystallines, Langtang Valley, central Nepal, in order to investigate the effect of retrograde diffusional exchange on the preservation of high-temperature, oxygen isotope systematics. Modelled fractionations, using water-present diffusion data reported in the literature, predict quartz-mica fractionations to be much larger than those at peak metamorphic and igneous conditions due to low closure temperatures for micas. Quartz-feldspar fractionations may be less than those at peak conditions, and in some samples may even be slightly negative. The observed oxygen isotope fractionations in the metamorphic rocks are small and largely appear to record equilibrations close to peak conditions determined by other methods. Hence these rocks clearly do not conform to predictions of fluid-present diffusional retrograde exchange. It is suggested that their retrograde history was therefore within an anhydrous closed system in which diffusion was slow and hence mineral closure temperatures were high. The granitic rocks record rather larger quartz-biotite fractionations, approaching those predicted by the diffusion modelling. However, quartz-feldspar fractionations are large and hence, although significant retrograde exchange has clearly occurred, simple diffusion alone is not sufficient to explain the observed data and open-system exchange may be required. The presence of fluids during the retrograde history of this part of the section is supported by petrographic evidence. The different retrograde oxygen exchange histories recorded between the regional metamorphic and magmatic regimes of the Langtang section would appear to support the importance of water on the kinetics of such exchange, and suggests that in its absence, diffusional exchange may become insignificant, allowing oxygen isotope thermometry to record meaningful high-temperature data.     

Computing Displacements in Transversely Isotropic Rocks Using Influence Charts

Summary  This paper presents a simple graphical method for computing the displacement beneath/at the surface of a transversely isotropic half-space subjected to surface loads. The surface load can be distributed on an irregularly-shaped area. The planes of transverse isotropy are assumed to be parallel to the horizontal surface of the half-space. Based on the point load solutions presented by the authors, four influence charts are constructed for calculating the three displacements at any point in the interior of the half-space. Then, by setting z=0 of the derived solutions, another four influence charts for computing the surface displacements can also be proposed. These charts are composed of unit blocks. Each unit block is bounded by two adjacent radii and arcs, and contributes the same level of influence to the displacement. Following, a theoretical study was performed and the results showed that the charts for interior displacements are only suitable for transversely isotropic rocks with real roots of the characteristic equation; however, the charts for surface displacements are suitable for all transversely isotropic rocks. Finally, to demonstrate the use of the new graphical method, an illustrative example of a layered rock subjected to a uniform, normal circular-shaped load is given. The results from the new graphical method agree with those of analytical solutions as well. The new influence charts can be a practical alternative to the existing analytical or numerical solutions, and provide results with reasonable accuracy.     

山东胶莱盆地白垩纪恐龙足迹与骨骼化石埋藏沉积相与古地理环境

化石埋藏学的核心内容就是要研究不同规模生物化石埋藏的沉积相,恢复沉积环境,了解化石形成和被埋藏前、后的古地理背景。大规模化石记录埋藏学的研究代表着目前国际上发展趋势,重点探索集群灭绝的古地理、古环境与保存作用。中国具有丰富的恐龙化石资源,目前已经成为全球命名恐龙属种最多的国家,相继发现了从侏罗纪到白垩纪的若干恐龙化石遗迹或骨骼埋藏点。胶莱盆地发育着完整的白垩纪陆相(莱阳群-青山群-王氏群,130~65 Ma) 地层和沉积记录。早白垩世莱阳群以河流及湖泊相沉积物为主;青山群为中酸性火山岩、火山碎屑岩,间夹沉积岩。晚白垩世王氏群下部以冲积扇、泥石流和辫状河道相的沉积物和岩石组合为主;中部则为滨浅湖与河流粉砂岩细砂岩泥页岩灰质土（古土壤）韵律沉积;上部和顶部为冲积扇泥石流、辫状河和洪泛平原粉砂泥质砾岩砂岩砾岩的韵律序列,局部夹玄武岩,反映了晚白垩世末期古地理、古沉积环境已从早白垩世相对湿润和温热的冲积、湖泊环境转变为燥热、干旱的冲积环境。胶莱盆地早白垩世的生物群面貌（脊椎动物、昆虫和植物等）与华北北部热河生物群基本相同,除保存少量的小型恐龙（鹦鹉嘴龙）或翼龙骨骼化石外,还保存了大量的兽脚类、蜥脚类和鸟脚类足迹（群）化石（莱阳群）。诸城晚白垩世王氏群中上部发育集群埋藏的恐龙骨骼化石,已发现恐龙属种10余个,包括3种角龙、3种暴龙、2种鸭嘴龙以及甲龙和虚骨龙等,其中鸭嘴龙占绝大多数（95% 以上）。恐龙化石多为无关联的各类骨骼,少数半关联的小个体恐龙,分选差,混杂堆积。通过诸城恐龙化石埋藏地地层及其沉积相研究,识别出泥石流、洪泛平原和辫状河道3种恐龙化石埋藏沉积相、微相类型,其中泥石流相是最主要的埋藏沉积相,代表了晚白垩世中期恐龙集群埋藏沉积事件和动力机制。莱阳地区王氏群上部和顶部为紫色、砖红色砾岩砂岩粉砂岩灰质土韵律沉积,属于洪泛平原和辫状河道沉积微相组合,代表着晚白垩世末期燥热、干旱的冲积环境。恐龙化石大都埋藏在大型辫状河道微相之下的洪泛平原微相中。化石呈分散或孤立状,有不同程度的磨蚀或破损,关联或半关联者少见,表明经过一定距离的搬运或改造作用。文章最后简述了胶莱盆地以及白垩纪古地理环境、古生态、恐龙动物群的演化或耦合作用。     

莺歌海盆地浅海环境下烃源岩有机质形成机制

为了解莺歌海盆地海相烃源岩有机质形成机制,本研究引入地球生物学方法正演烃源岩形成过程,弥补盆地样品条件的不足,再结合有机地球化学方法,综合研究莺歌海盆地海相烃源岩有机质形成机制,建立烃源岩发育模式.研究认为:莺歌海盆地中新统发育浅海相烃源岩,有机质类型以Ⅱ₂-Ⅲ型为主,为混合型生源母质,现今凹陷内大部分烃源岩处于高熟-过成熟生气阶段.海相烃源岩以古生产力和保存条件为主要控制因素,平面上,莺歌海盆地东方区中新统烃源岩发育条件优于乐东区;纵向上,梅山组可能是有利的烃源层段.研究成果为正确认识莺歌海盆地烃源岩形成机制并准确评价其资源潜力提供了重要依据.      

TRANSIT,an experimental archaeological program in periglacial environment: Problem,methodology, first results

The aim of the experimental archaeological program TRANSIT is to improve the scientific study of Paleolithic sites. This program is based on studies and experiments carried out at high altitudes in the French Alps. One of its goals is to assess the effects of periglacial processes on spatial distributions within archaeological assemblages and on artifacts and bones. Research on sedimentary environments elucidates stratogenesis in periglacial contexts. In particular, sedimentary models that are useful for interpreting fossil deposits were identified. The first results obtained from experimental artifact test plots emphasize the importance and speed of changes that occur in such a climatic and morphodynamic context. Mean lateral displacements from 1.66 to 4.75 cm yr⁻¹ were measured. Moreover, analysis of osseous and dental pieces showed that they experienced important damage. Works on pollen assemblages have shown that most of the pollen deposited on the ground surface is quickly removed and that, owing to the very uneven preservation of pollen taxa, an important distortion of the initial spectrum occurs. A model of spatial arrangement of artifacts linked to the action of solifluction processes is also proposed. Finally, application of these results to some Paleolithic sites in the Massif Central and southwest France are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Geological processes and the mechanical aspects of rock squeeze

The nature and origins of slow displacements of geological materials near the earth's surface, commonly termed rock squeeze when hazardous to engineered structures, are reviewed. The similarity and common origin of strain development which occurs in response to natural geological processes, and as a result of the stimulation of geological materials by man, is emphasised. The origins and modes of release of strain energy which are considered include the effects of present-day differential vertical crustal movements on strain energy changes in near-surface rocks. Some of the activities of man which may stimulate geological materials are noted.     

A magnetic fabric study of the Shap region in the English Lake District

The magnetic susceptibility anisotropy technique was applied to 50 sites, comprising 280 core samples from the Shap Granite and the surrounding country rocks from both within and outside the thermal aureole. The magnetic fabrics of individual cores from the granite pluton indicate preferred orientations of non-equi-dimensional magnetite grains. This fabric developed during the slow ascent and consequent cooling of the magma. The sites from the metamorphic rocks from the immediate contact with the Shap Granite show weak axial shortening directions which are subnormal to the granite contact. Core samples from the surrounding Ordovician and Silurian rocks within the thermal metamorphic aureole but further from the granite have oblate magnetic- fabric ellipsoids with subvertical magnetic foliations trending approximately NE-SW, parallel to the regional Caledonian cleavage planes. This suggests that the magnetic fabric observed in the granite is primary with respect to the time of emplacement of the magma, and that this emplacement post-dates the main compressive phase of the Caledonian Orogeny. The effect of the granite on the country rock is mainly thermal metamorphism with mechanical deformation limited to a very narrow strip around the granite.     

有机质供给和保存在烃源岩形成中的控制作用

烃源岩形成研究一直集中于海相盆地的“生产力模式”和“保存模式”之争, 湖相盆地研究较少.利用二连盆地烃源岩有机碳、碳酸盐碳同位素、热解参数、还原硫等地球化学分析数据, 表征了湖盆古生产力和陆源有机质输入, 研究了有机质供给和保存在烃源岩形成中的控制作用, 发现不同的湖盆中有机质供给和保存对烃源岩形成的控制作用明显不同.有机质供给量大的湖盆原始有机质含量高, 烃源岩形成主要受有机质供给控制, 受有机质保存条件影响小, 即使在含氧的水底也会有部分有机质来不及氧化而富集形成烃源岩; 有机质供给量小的湖盆原始有机质含量低, 氧化环境中大部分有机质被降解难以形成烃源岩, 只有还原环境下有机质才能得到较好的保存, 有机质保存是控制烃源岩形成的主要因素.      

The formation environment and development modes of Cenozoic source rocks in the Qiongdongnan Basin

According to the drilling results,there are three sets of source rocks of the Cenozoic Group in the Qiongdongnan Basin,including the Yacheng Formation transitional facies mudstone,the Oligocene Lingshui Formation semi-enclosed marine facies mudstone,and the Miocene neritic-bathyal facies mudstone.The hydrocarbon generating conditions of the source rocks in the study area are mainly controlled by sedimentary environment and organic matter input.The abundance of organic matter in the Oligocene source rocks which were formed in a low-energy back shore environment is confined by organic matter input and hydrodynamic condition.The Miocene source rocks formed in the open marine environment lack terrestrial organic matter input,whose organic matter abundance is constrained by the primary production of the ocean and the preservation condition of organic matter.In addition,the redox conditions are also significant to the formation of source rocks in the study area.According to the differences in key factors controlling the development of source rocks in different time periods and structural belts revealed by drilling practice,three development patterns of source rocks have been put forward.The first one is the transitional facies model featuring a great deal of terrestrial organic matter and weakly hydrodynamic conditions which are apt to develop high effective source rocks in the Yacheng Formation.The second one is the semi-enclosed marine facies featuring abundant terrestrial organic matter,weakly hydrodynamic condition and fine preservation condition in the central depression zone,which are apt to form fine-quality source rocks in the Lingshui Formation.The third one is the marine facies model featuring strong hydrodynamics in the shore-shallow area of northern continental shelf and the lack of benthic algae which are against the development of source rocks.It can be predicted that the continental slope is the perfect place to form source rocks where adequate amounts of light favor the photosynthesis of plants,besides the fine preservation and weakly hydrodynamic conditions.In the deep sea area,although accompanied with weakly hydrodynamic conditions and a reduction environment,it is not suitable for the development of source rocks on account of less aquatic organisms causing low primary production.     

西昌盆地五峰组—龙马溪组页岩气保存条件研究

保存条件是影响页岩气富集高产的关键因素.本文综合利用地质、钻井等资料,分析了西昌盆地五峰组—龙马溪组的顶底板条件、构造特征、地层压力特征和气体组分,从宏观和微观两个方面对影响页岩气保存的主要指标进行了研究,在此基础上开展了西昌盆地保存条件综合评价.结果表明:盆地各凹陷主要由走滑-冲断带相隔,凹陷内地层缓倾,构造样式表现...     

云南思茅盆地二叠纪层序格架与生储盖研究

根据层序界面的特点、凝缩段的组成,思茅盆地二叠系可分为2个Ⅱ级层序、9个Ⅲ级层序.在此基础上,探讨了层序格架与油气生储盖的关系可分为2个二级层序界面为一构造侵蚀不整合层序界面,是极好的储集场所.此时西部盆地中沉积物已经变质,与生储盖关系不大;而东部地区以开阔碳酸盐台地为主,低位体系域、海侵体系域和高位体系域以形成储集层为主.第2个二级层序由海侵-高位体系域所构成.海侵体系域由龙潭组下部所组成,在普洱西部崖子以西为深水盆地（含斜坡）环境,以东为浅海环境,邻近东部古陆区为滨海环境.无论盆地或浅海,岩性以深灰-灰黑色泥岩为主,生烃性能极好.高位体系域可以分为早期高位体系域和晚期高位体系域.早期高位体系域由龙潭组上部层位组成,西为浅海相砂岩、火山岩等,可作储层;东为滨海平原,下部以深灰、灰黑色泥岩为主,是很好的生油岩,上部以砂岩为主夹火山岩,可作为储集层.晚期高位体系域西部为长兴组灰岩、白云质灰岩、白云岩,可作为储层之用.     

川东盆缘带龙马溪组关键保存要素对页岩气富集的控制作用

川东盆缘带是南方地区龙马溪组页岩气勘探的重点地区,已经在涪陵地区建成我国第一个页岩气大气田.研究区页岩气原始地质条件优越,但由于后期构造改造强烈,保存条件十分复杂,直接影响到页岩气的富集程度,除涪陵地区外的其他地区尚未取得产能建设的重大突破.笔者等利用钻井、野外、测井、地震及分析测试资料分析了研究区构造及演化特征、抬升...     

Hydrocarbon source rock variability within the Austin Chalk and Eagle Ford Shale (Upper Cretaceous), East Texas, U.S.A.

The Austin Chalk and Eagle Ford Shale are Upper Cretaceous deposits that extend across Texas from the northeast to southwest. These formations contain organic carbon enriched mudstones and chalks that were deposited during transgressions of the Cretaceous epeiric sea in North America. Recent workers in petroleum geochemistry have demonstrated that these organic enriched rocks possessed attributes common to oil source rocks. The present study of these Austin Chalk and Eagle Ford Shale rocks is from the perspective of organic petrology, and it augments the earlier geochemical work that documented source variability within units of these formations. As with the earlier work, the results of this study show that both formations contain intervals that are, when mature, capable of generating commercial quantities of liquid hydrocarbons. However, this work further revealed that Eagle Ford rocks not only exhibit greater or ganic carbon contents, but also have greater quantities of oil-prone kerogen (fluorescent amorphinite and exinite) when compared with rocks from the Austin Chalk. These source rock differences relate to levels or degrees of organic preservation. Dysaerobic to oxic depositional settings seem to be more characteristic of the Austin Chalk than of the Eagle Ford Shale. Such oxic environments do not consistently favor the preservation of organic matter. Usually, well-preserved kerogen forms under more anoxic conditions, such as those that occurred during deposition of some Eagle Ford units. These anoxic conditions suggest that the geographically more extensive Eagle Ford Shale is a more important source for oil than is the Austin Chalk.     

Kinematics of late Mesozoic thrusting,Pilot Mountains,west-central Nevada,U.S.A.

The northern Pilot Mountains of west-central Nevada, consist of a complexly deformed terrane of imbricate thrust nappes composed of rocks of Permian(?), Triassic through Jurassic, and possible Cretaceous ages. Three episodes of fold and thrust generation are recognized on the basis of folded thrusts and thrusted folds, and deformation and emplacement of the nappes is constrained as having occurred during the late Mesozoic. Folds are apparently coeval with thrust faults, and fold geometry is used in determining approximate directions of thrust displacement. The history of thrust displacement is complex and involves three directions of motion on a regionally extensive detachment surface, the Luning thrust. The first motion, from NW to SE, results in displacements of the order of several tens of kilometres and is the probable result of NW-SE regional compression. The final two episodes of motion are NE-SW followed by E-W; they result in small displacements and are possibly the product of gravity sliding of the thrust sheet into depressions in the autochthon. Sites of downwarp in the autochthon may have been formed either by load induced subsidence or regional compression.     

Petrogenesis of UHP metamorphic rocks from Qinglongshan, southern Sulu, east-central China

Five kinds of UHP metamorphic rocks, including eclogite, orthogneiss, paragneiss, schist and quartzite are exposed in the Qinglongshan roadcut, southern Sulu orogenic belt of eastern central China. They comprise metamorphic supracrustal rocks with bimodal volcanic characteristics and continental affinity, and granitic intrusive associations. The preservation of coesite inclusions and/or its pseudomorphs in eclogite and other rocks indicate that they have been subjected to in-situ UHP metamorphism. Four stages of metamorphism were recognized by combining petrographic observations and compositions of minerals from various UHP rocks. Prograde epidote-amphibolite facies, UHP coesite–eclogite facies, post UHP quartz–eclogite facies, and retrograde amphibolite facies assemblages delineate an inferred P–T path with a clockwise trajectory and a retrograde event characterized by the coupling of decompression with a temperature decrease. Garnet porphyroblasts in UHP eclogites display a complex growth zoning and mineral distribution, and record a crucial segment of the prograde and retrograde metamorphic evolution. The preservation of growth zoning in eclogitic and gneissic garnets suggests that the UHP rocks had a short residence time before retrograde metamorphism and a very high uplift rate in order to preserve the prograde growth zoning.     

豫东地区煤系烃源岩有机质特征与煤系气资源潜力

为了评价豫东地区煤系烃源岩生烃潜力,基于有机碳含量（TOC）、镜质体反射率、干酪根类型及显微组成等测试分析结果,探讨了豫东地区不同区块煤系烃源岩的有机地球化学特征,对比分析了不同区块煤系气资源潜力,提出煤系气勘探有利区块。结果表明:区内煤系烃源岩的有机碳含量偏低（小于1.5%）;干酪根类型以Ⅲ型为主,偶见Ⅱ₂型干酪根,利于生气;煤系经历了中二叠-中晚三叠世和晚侏罗-早白垩世2个大量生烃阶段,烃源岩热演化程度较高,镜质体反射率（R_ran）为1.44%~3.80%,平均2.83%,有机质进入高成熟-过高成熟阶段,生烃量较充足。总体上,区内烃源岩生烃潜力属于差-中级别,砂泥岩储集性能相对较好,含气量高。煤系盖层主要为封盖性好的细砂岩、煤层、泥质岩类,煤系烃源岩气体保存条件好。研究认为研究区的睢西区块烃源岩具有埋藏深度较浅、有效厚度大、孔隙度高、含气量和含气饱和度高、有机质成熟度高的特点,为豫东煤系气勘探的有利区块。      

Monitoring of landslide displacements using UAS and control methods based on lines

This study describes a new methodology for monitoring landslide displacements using a set of linear elements included in the terrain. These linear elements are digitized using the products obtained from several photogrammetric flights implemented by means of unmanned aircraft systems in several dates. The control of the displacements between dates is carried out using some new metrics and methods based on lines. The results of the control of the lines are used to analyse the general and particular behaviour of the landslide. Using this type of elements allows us to study some singular behaviour of linear elements included in the landslides (e.g. an affected road can react as a block). The methodology has been tested with success using a real case of an active slope with several landslides which was studied on three separate dates. The results have demonstrated the viability of using this methodology for studying the evolution of the landslides and their consequences regarding certain elements included in the terrain.