Inference of the structure of karst conduits using quantitative tracer tests and geological information: example of the Swiss Jura

Karst aquifers are known for being particularly heterogeneous with highly transmissive conduits embedded in low permeability volumes of rock matrix. Artificial tracer experiments have been carried out in a complex karst aquifer of the folded Jura Mountains in Switzerland with the aim of deciphering the conduit organisation. It is shown that tracer experiments with multiple injection points under different flow conditions can lead to useful information on the conduits’ structure. This information has been combined with data from structural geology, spring hydrology, and speleological observations. A conceptual model of the conduit network shows that a detailed inference of the conduit organisation can be reached: geology controls conduit location and orientation; spring hydrology, including temporary springs, constrains conduit elevations and relative hydraulic heads in the aquifer subsystems; and tracer tests identify major flow paths and outlets of the system and dilution caused by non-traced tributaries, as well as the presence of secondary flow routes. This understanding of the Aubonne aquifer structure has important implications for the future management of the groundwater resource. Similar approaches coupling geological information, spring hydrology, and multi-tracer tests under various flow conditions may help to characterise the structure of the conduit network in karst aquifers.     

Groundwater-flow modeling in the Yucatan karstic aquifer, Mexico

The current conceptual model of the unconfined karstic aquifer in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, is that a fresh-water lens floats above denser saline water that penetrates more than 40 km inland. The transmissivity of the aquifer is very high so the hydraulic gradient is very low, ranging from 7–10 mm/km through most of the northern part of the peninsula. The computer modeling program AQUIFER was used to investigate the regional groundwater flow in the aquifer. The karstified zone was modeled using the assumption that it acts hydraulically similar to a granular, porous medium. As part of the calibration, the following hypotheses were tested: (1) karstic features play an important role in the groundwater-flow system; (2) a ring or belt of sinkholes in the area is a manifestation of a zone of high transmissivity that facilitates the channeling of groundwater toward the Gulf of Mexico; and (3) the geologic features in the southern part of Yucatan influence the groundwater-flow system. The model shows that the Sierrita de Ticul fault, in the southwestern part of the study area, acts as a flow barrier and head values decline toward the northeast. The modeling also shows that the regional flow-system dynamics have not been altered despite the large number of pumping wells because the volume of water pumped is small compared with the volume of recharge, and the well-developed karst system of the region has a very high hydraulic conductivity. Electronic Publication     

Characterization of hydrogeologic properties for a multi-layered alluvial aquifer using hydraulic and tracer tests and electrical resistivity survey

A multi-layered aquifer, typical of riverbank alluvial deposits in Korea, was studied to determine the hydrologic properties. The geologic logging showed that the subsurface of the study site was comprised of four distinctive hydrogeologic units: silt, sand, highly weathered and fresh bedrock layers. The electrical resistivity survey supplied information on lateral extension of hydrogeologic strata only partially identified by a limited number of the geologic loggings. The laboratory column tracer test for the recovered core of the sand layer resulted in a hydraulic conductivity of 5.00×10⁻² cm/s. The slug tests performed in the weathered rock layer yielded hydraulic conductivities of 4.32–7.72×10⁻⁴ cm/s. Hydraulic conductivities for the sand layer calculated from the breakthrough curves of bromide ranged between 2.08×10⁻³ and 2.44×10⁻² cm/s with a geometric mean of 6.89×10⁻³ cm/s, which is 7 times smaller than that from the laboratory column experiment. The trend of increasing hydraulic conductivity with an increase in tracer travel length is likely a result of the increased likelihood of encountering a high conductivity zone as more of the aquifer is tested. The combined hydrogeologic site characterization using hydraulic tests, tracer tests, and column test with geologic loggings and geophysical survey greatly enhanced the understanding of the hydrologic properties of the multi-layered alluvial aquifer.     

Modeling hydrological responses of karst spring to storm events: example of the Shuifang spring (Jinfo Mt., Chongqing,China)

Reproduction of hydrographs at karst springs has been an approach of understanding the karst aquifer, which normally acts as drains for the groundwater flow. However, its numerical modeling is difficult since factors for the internal geometry and connectedness are unknown and hard to quantify. Hydrographs of the karst aquifer with well-developed conduits in Shuifang spring catchment were obtained from the automatic gauging station at the spring orifice. Data as to the conduit system were also obtained based on results and analyses of tracer tests. With these data, the hydrological responses of Shuifang spring to storm events were simulated by storm water management model (SWMM) developed by USA EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Nash–Sutcliffe efficiencies are used to compare the computed flow to the observed, which are 0.95 and 0.92 for calibration and validation. SWMM was verified and applicable in karst conduit drainage system. The model illustrated correctly quick recharge through conduits and slow and low inflow from the fissured aquifer matrix. The SCS-CN (soil conservation service-curve number) infiltration method was used for computation of losses and runoff. Field tests indicated that permeability was extremely high but different in karst area, which was less sensitive to the computed runoff when exceeded the common value provided by SWMM. Therefore, an improved quantitative infiltration model for karst area will make SWMM possible to be a useful tool for assessing and reproducing spring hydrographs.     

岩溶热储井间连通性的示踪研究

岩溶热储储层的不均匀性强,采灌井之间的连通性不易确定。示踪技术可以将运移参数量化,有效刻画储层流体的特征,研究回灌井和开采井之间的水力联系,包括导水通道,流体流速等信息,对长期回灌可能引起的开采井的冷却进行预测,是岩溶热储井间连通性研究十分有效的技术。本文以华北牛驼镇地热田雄县地区为例,针对蓟县系雾迷山组岩溶热储,采用荧光素钠示踪剂,进行了1口井注入,10口井观测的群井示踪试验。采用裂隙介质溶质运移模型,对示踪试验数据进行了解释,得到优势通道的长度、渗透流速、纵向弥散度、回收率等储层性质,获得了试验区内采灌井之间的连通特征。对调整采灌井布局提出了建议。     

Applying a modified conduit flow process to understand conduit-matrix exchange of a karst aquifer

Due to the high heterogeneity and complexity of water flow movement for multiple karst water-bearing mediums,the evaluation,effective development,and utilization of karst water resources are significantly limited.Matrix flow is usually laminar,whereas conduit flow is usually turbulent.The driving mechanisms of water exchange that occur between the karst conduit and its adjacent matrix are not well understood.This paper investigates the hydrodynamic characteristics and the mechanism of flow exchange in dual water-bearing mediums(conduit and matrix)of karst aquifers through laboratory experimentation and numerical simulation.A karst aquifer consisting of a matrix network and a conduit was proposed,and the relationship between the water exchange flux and hydraulic head differences generated from the laboratory experiments was analyzed.Two modes of experimental tests were performed with different fixed water level boundaries in the laboratory karst aquifer.The results indicate that the water exchange capacity was proportional to the square root of hydraulic head differences.The linear exchange term in the conduit flow process(CFP)source program was modified according to experimental results.The modified CFP and the original CFP model experimental data results were compared,and it was found that the modified CFP model had better fitting effects.These results showed that the water exchange mechanism between conduit and matrix is very important for solid-liquid interface reaction,water resource evaluation,and understanding of karst hydrodynamic behavior.     

Dynamics and interaction of organic carbon, turbidity and bacteria in a karst aquifer system

The dynamics of organic carbon (OC), turbidity, faecal indicator bacteria and physicochemical parameters was studied in a karst system near Yverdon, Switzerland. Online measurements and sampling were done at a swallow hole draining an agricultural surface (the input), and two groups of springs (the outputs) that often show bacterial contamination. A fluorescent tracer that was injected into the swallow hole during low-flow conditions first arrived at the springs 10–12 days after injection; the total recovery rate was 29%. Previous tracer tests during high-flow conditions gave shorter travel times. After a major rainfall event, a primary turbidity peak was observed at the springs. It coincides with the rising limb of the hydrograph, indicating remobilisation of autochthonous particles from the aquifer. A secondary turbidity peak occurs several days later, suggesting the arrival of allochthonous particles from the swallow hole. Wider peaks of OC and bacteria were observed simultaneously. Applying methods from molecular microbiology (PCR-DGGE) allowed characterisation of the bacterial communities at the swallow hole and the springs. The results demonstrate that the swallow hole is an important source of groundwater contamination, while its contribution to aquifer recharge is insignificant. OC appears to be a better indicator for bacterial contamination than turbidity.     

Combined interpretation of radar, hydraulic, and tracer data from a fractured-rock aquifer near Mirror Lake, New Hampshire, USA

An integrated interpretation of field experimental cross-hole radar, tracer, and hydraulic data demonstrates the value of combining time-lapse geophysical monitoring with conventional hydrologic measurements for improved characterization of a fractured-rock aquifer. Time-lapse difference-attenuation radar tomography was conducted during saline tracer experiments at the US Geological Survey Fractured Rock Hydrology Research Site near Mirror Lake, Grafton County, New Hampshire, USA. The presence of electrically conductive saline tracer effectively illuminates permeable fractures or pathways for geophysical imaging. The geophysical results guide the construction of three-dimensional numerical models of ground-water flow and solute transport. In an effort to explore alternative explanations for the tracer and tomographic data, a suite of conceptual models involving heterogeneous hydraulic conductivity fields and rate-limited mass transfer are considered. Calibration data include tracer concentrations, the arrival time of peak concentration at the outlet, and steady-state hydraulic head. Results from the coupled inversion procedure suggest that much of the tracer mass migrated outside the three tomographic image planes, and that solute is likely transported by two pathways through the system. This work provides basic and site-specific insights into the control of permeability heterogeneity on ground-water flow and solute transport in fractured rock.

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Resumen Una interpretación integrada de radar experimental de campo transversal a pozos, trazadores, y datos hidráulicos demuestra el valor de combinar el monitoreo geofísico realizado en periodos de tiempo con mediciones hidrológicas convencionales en la caracterización mejorada de un acuífero rocoso fracturado. Se llevó a cabo tomografía de radar por periodos de tiempo y diferencia de atenuación durante un experimento con trazadores salinos en el sitio de investigación hidrológica de roca fracturada del Servicio Geológico de Estados Unidos cerca del Lago Espejo, Condado Grafton, New Hampshire, USA. La presencia del trazador salino eléctricamente conductivo refleja efectivamente fracturas permeables o trayectorias para imágenes geofísicas. Los resultados geofísicos orientan la construcción de modelos numéricos tri-dimensionales de flujo de agua subterránea y transporte de solutos. En un esfuerzo por explorar explicaciones alternativas para los datos tomográficos y trazadores se considera un conjunto de modelos conceptuales que involucran campos de conductividad hidráulica heterogéneos y transferencias de masa de ritmo limitado. La calibración de datos incluye concentraciones de trazadores, el tiempo de llegada de la concentración pico en la salida, y presión hidráulica en régimen permanente. Los resultados del procedimiento de acoplamiento invertido sugieren que mucho de la masa del trazador migró fuera de los tres planos de imagen tomográfica, y que el soluto es probablemente transportado por dos trayectorias a través del sistema. Este trabajo aporta ideas básicas y específicas del sitio en relación con el control de la heterogeneidad de permeabilidades en el flujo de agua subterránea y transporte de solutos en rocas fracturadas.

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Résumé Une interprétation intégrée détudes de terrain (radar entre puits, traçages, données hydrauliques) démontre la valeur de la combinaison entre la géophysique des temps finis et les mesures hydrologiques conventionnelles pour une interprétation améliorée dun aquifère de roche fracturée. La tomographie au radar a été mise en uvre durant un traçage artificiel au sel au site de recherche sur lhydrologie des roches fracturées du Service Géologique des US, à proximité du Lac Mirror, Conté de Grafton, Nouvel Hampshire, USA. La présence du traceur électriquement conducteur met en relief, grâce à la géophysique, la présence de fractures ou découlements préférentiels. Les résultats de la géophysique ont permis la construction de modèle hydrogéologique tri-dimensionnel des écoulements et du transport de soluté. Dans loptique dexplorer des interprétations alternatives des données de traçage et de tomographie, différents modèles conceptuels sont utilisés concernant lhétérogénéité des conductivités hydrauliques et des taux limités de transferts de solutés. Les données du calibrage incluent les données de concentration du traceur, le temps darrivée du pic de restitution et les données piézométriques en régime permanent. Les résultats de la procédure dinversion couplée suggèrent quune quantité très importante du traceur migre au delà de la fenêtre de visualisation des tomographies, et que le soluté est transporté via deux voies découlement préférentiel. Ce travail apporte des connaissances de base et spécifiques au site concernant la distribution de la perméabilité dans laquifère et le transport de soluté dans les roches fracturées.

     

Complementary use of tracer and pumping tests to characterize a heterogeneous channelized aquifer system in New Zealand

The combined use of pumping and tracer test data enabled the derivation of equivalent average hydraulic conductivities (K_avg) for each test in a heterogeneous channelized alluvial aquifer, whereas K values of the preferential flow paths were two orders of magnitude higher. Greater and earlier drawdown was generally observed along preferential flow lines in a pumping test, within an array of 21 wells. The study aim was to characterize hydraulic properties of a channelized aquifer system in New Zealand by combining tracer and pumping test data. Estimates were able to be made of the percentage of highly permeable channels within the profile (～1.2%), effective porosity that reflected the maximum fraction of highly permeable channels within the aquifer (?_eff–pc ～0.0038), and flows through highly permeable channels (～98%) and the sandy gravel matrix material (～2%). Using ?_eff–pc, a tracer test K_avg value (～93 m/day) was estimated that was equivalent to pumping test values (～100 m/day), but two orders of magnitude smaller than K calculated solely from transport through permeable channels (K_pc ～8,400 m/day). Derived K values of permeable and matrix material were similar to values derived from grain size distribution using the Kozeny-Carman equation.     

某铜矿尾矿砂力学特性研究和稳定性分析

在揭示某铜矿尾矿坝坝体材料空间分布状态及其力学特性的基础上,利用自动搜索的电算程序STED,分析计算了尾矿坝的整体与局部稳定性,得出一些结论,可为治理方案提供科学依据和技术指导。     

Assessing flow systems in carbonate aquifers using scale effects in hydraulic conductivity

Counter to intuition, small-scale measurements of hydraulic conductivity do not average to regional values. Instead, mean hydraulic conductivity increases with measurement scale up to a critical distance termed the range, beyond which a constant regional value prevails. Likewise, variance in log hydraulic conductivity increases with separation distance between measurement points as the spatial correlation decreases. As dissolution proceeds in carbonate aquifers, heterogeneity and the volume necessary for an equivalent homogeneous medium (EHM) both increase. As these variables increase, the range of scale increase in both mean hydraulic conductivity and variance increases proportionately. Consequently, the range in scale effects is a reliable measure of the degree of secondary dissolution. By correlating the numeric value of range with independently measured hydraulic properties, the prevalent type of flow system, diffuse, mixed or conduit can be determined.     

Improved groundwater vulnerability mapping for the karstic chalk aquifer of south east England

The Cretaceous age Chalk of south east England forms an important aquifer. Within chalk the storage and transmission of groundwater is enhanced by subsurface karstic weathering. The case study presented in this paper demonstrates that current approaches to assessing groundwater vulnerability to pollution and delineating source protection zones are flawed, as they do not take proper account of the karstic nature of chalk.Improved techniques, based on understanding the geological and geomorphological controls of karst development in chalk, are proposed to overcome the shortcomings of published groundwater vulnerability maps. The results also demonstrate the inadequacies of current groundwater modelling approaches for defining source protection zones. The techniques follow European Commission research recommendations by taking account of recharge, presence of overlying cover deposits, the nature of chalk karst and the way in which it influences the flow of groundwater. The approach described allows for better informed decisions to be made about chalk aquifer management to ensure adequate protection and conservation of groundwater. For example, the published groundwater vulnerability map shows Lambeth Group deposits classified as being a minor aquifer of low groundwater vulnerability in the chosen study area. However, by applying the new techniques, they are classified as having an Aquifer Vulnerability Rating of moderate to very high, when taking the karstic development of the underlying chalk into account.     

Two in one leachate plume in a karstic aquifer

Some sites formerly used for waste disposal purposes, even if they are closed, continue generating leachate that seeps into the ground and contaminates groundwater in the area where they are located. It is believed that the rainfall being in contact with waste becomes a source of leachate. This fluid seeps into the aquifer and may identify sources of pollution. A modeling work which determined the migration times of solutes in the karstic aquifer of Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, is presented. Both existing and generated information was analyzed; a leachate plume was identified. The methodology used in the study is described, the application of which allowed concluding that this plume was generated from two sources: a waste disposal site and the oxidation lagoons located next to it. The procedure consisted of performing simulations considering the sources that contribute to the development of the pollution plume and forecasting their behavior. With the developed methodology, similar cases can be analyzed to avoid locating catchment zones of drinking water in inappropriate places and/or develop projects to place waste disposal sites that could affect existing catchment areas and to preserve this resource, essential for life.     

Dynamic of the freshwater–saltwater interface in a karstic aquifer under extraordinary recharge action: the Merida Yucatan case study

A hydraulic analysis of the interface between freshwater–saltwater behavior was done in the Merida Yucatan zone, two machines that constantly register the groundwater levels were installed, and three electric conductivity logs were taken from wells. When comparing the measured results with the ones obtained using theoretical equations developed to calculate the freshwater–saltwater interface position, it was proved that in some cases these equations can be applied, and in others not. Two effects that rule the behavior of karst aquifers in extraordinary conditions were found.     

Copepod distribution as an indicator of epikarst system connectivity

The distribution of 27 copepod species was determined in 35 drips in four Slovenian caves (Dimnice, Postojna Planina Cave System, Škocjanske Jame, Županova Jama), and of ten species from 13 drips in one US cave (Organ Cave, West Virginia). The dripping water comes from epikarst, the skin of karst. A significant fraction of the copepod species found (nine species in Slovenia and three in West Virginia) occurred over a maximum linear extent of 100 m. These and other localized distributions probably resulted from colonization of epikarst by an ancestral surface population in a single location, with subsequent lateral spread in the direction of epikarst flow. This suggests that the distribution of copepods could potentially be used to trace major flow paths in epikarst without the need for the injection of dyes or other tracers.

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Résumé La distribution de 27 espèces de copépodes a été déterminée dans 35 zones de percolation de quatre grottes slovènes (Dimnice, système de grottes Postojna Planina, Škocjanske Jame, Županova Jama) et grace à dix espèces de 13 zones de percolation d’une grotte des Etats-Unis (Grotte Organ, Ouest de la Virginie). L’eau de percolation provient de l’épikarst, la partie supérieure du karst. Une fraction importante des espèces de copépodes trouvées (9 espèces en Slovénie et 3 dans l’Ouest de la Virginie) s’étendait sur une longueur maximum de 100 m. Ces dernières ainsi que d’autres distributions localisées étaient probablement issues de la colonisation par une population ancienne de surface, de zones localisées de l’épikarst, puis par une dispersion latérale dans la direction de l’écoulement dans l’épikarst. Ceci suggère que la distribution des copépodes pourrait potentiellement être utilisée pour identifier les principales trajectoires d’écoulement dans l’épikarst, sans utiliser l’injection de colorants ou d’autres traceurs.

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Resumen Se determina la distribución de 27 especies de copépodo en 35 gotas de cuatro cavernas de Eslovenia (Dimnice, Sistema de Caverna Planina Postojna, Jame Škocjanske, y Jama Županova), y de diez especies en 13 gotas de una caverna de Estados Unidos (Caverna órgano, Virginia Occidental). El agua que gotea se deriva del epikarst, la piel del karst. Una fracción significativa de las especies de copépodos encontradas (9 especies en Eslovenia y 3 en Virginia Occidental) se presentaron en una extensión linear máxima de 100 m. Estas y otras distribuciones localizadas resultaron probablemente de colonización del epikarst por poblaciones superficiales ancestrales en una sola localización, con una expansión lateral subsiguiente en la dirección de flujo epikárstico. Esto sugiere que la distribución de copépodos podría tener un uso potencial para trazar rutas de flujo principales en epikarst sin tener la necesidad de inyectar colorantes u otros trazadores.

     

Evaluation of the ability of an artificial neural network model to simulate the input-output responses of a large karstic aquifer: the La Rochefoucauld aquifer (Charente,France)

The ability of artificial neural networks (ANN) to model the rainfall-discharge relationships of karstic aquifers has been studied in the La Rochefoucauld karst system, south-west France, which supplies water to the city of Angoulême. A neural networks model was developed based on MLP (multi-layer perceptron) networks and the Levenberg-Marquardt optimization algorithm. Raw rainfall data were used without transformation into effective rainfall. This allowed for the elimination of certain non-verifiable simplifying assumptions and their subsequent introduction into the modeling procedure. The raw rainfall and discharge data were divided into three groups for the training, the validation and the prediction test of the ANN model. The training and validation phases led to a very satisfactory calibration of the ANN model. The attempt to predict discharges showed that the ANN model is able to simulate the karstic aquifer discharges. The shape of the simulated hydrographs was found to be similar to that of the actual hydrographs. These encouraging results make it possible to consider interesting and new prospects for the modeling of karstic aquifers, which are highly non-linear systems.

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Resumen Se ha estudiado la capacidad de las redes artificiales neurales (ANN) para modelizar las relaciones de lluvia-descarga de acuíferos kársticos en el sistema kárstico La Rochefocauld, al suroeste de Francia, el cual abastece de agua a la ciudad de Angoulême. Se desarrolló un modelo de redes neurales en base a redes MLP (Perceptron Multi-Capas) y el algoritmo de optimización Levenberg-Marquardt. Se utilizaron datos de lluvia sin la transformación hacia lluvia efectiva. Esto permitió la eliminación de ciertos supuestos simplificadores no verificables y su subsiguiente introducción en el procedimiento de modelizado. Los datos brutos de descarga y lluvia se dividieron en 3 grupos para la preparación, validación y la prueba de predicción del modelo ANN. Las fases de preparación y validación llevaron a una calibración muy satisfactoria del modelo ANN. El intento por predecir descargas mostró que el modelo ANN es capaz de simular las descargas del acuífero kárstico. Se encontró que la forma de los hidrogramas sintéticos es similar a la de los hidrogramas reales. Estos resultados alentadores hacen posible considerar prospectos nuevos e interesantes para el modelizado de acuíferos kársticos los cuales son sistemas altamente no-lineares.

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Résumé L’aptitude des réseaux de neurones artificiels (RNA) à modéliser les relations pluie-débit des aquifères karstiques a été évaluée sur le karst de La Rochefoucauld (Sud-Ouest de la France), qui fournit l’eau potable à la capitale régionale Angoulême. Un modèle RNA a été développé à cet effet, basé sur les réseaux PMC (Perceptron Multicouche) et l’algorithme d’optimisation de Levenberg-Marquardt. Les données de pluie utilisées concernent la pluie brute, sans transformation en pluie efficace, ce qui permet de s’affranchir de certaines hypothèses simplificatrices non vérifiables. Les données de pluie brute et de débit ont été réparties en 3 groupes pour l’apprentissage, la validation et le test de prédiction du RNA. Les phases d’apprentissage et de validation ont permis d’aboutir à une calibration très satisfaisante du modèle RNA. La tentative de prédiction a montré que le RNA est apte à simuler les débits de l’aquifère karstique à partir de la pluie brute. La forme des hydrogrammes simulés est semblable à celle des hydrogrammes réels. Les résultats obtenus sont très encourageants et permettent d’envisager des perspectives intéressantes et nouvelles de modélisation des aquifères karstiques, qui sont des systèmes hautement non-linéaires.

     

Use of sinkhole and specific capacity distributions to assess vertical gradients in a karst aquifer

The carbonate-rock aquifer in the Great Valley, West Virginia, USA, was evaluated using a database of 687 sinkholes and 350 specific capacity tests to assess structural, lithologic, and topographic influences on the groundwater flow system. The enhanced permeability of the aquifer is characterized in part by the many sinkholes, springs, and solutionally enlarged fractures throughout the valley. Yet, vertical components of subsurface flow in this highly heterogeneous aquifer are currently not well understood. To address this problem, this study examines the apparent relation between geologic features of the aquifer and two spatial indices of enhanced permeability attributed to aquifer karstification: (1) the distribution of sinkholes and (2) the occurrence of wells with relatively high specific capacity. Statistical results indicate that sinkholes (funnel and collapse) occur primarily along cleavage and bedding planes parallel to subparallel to strike where lateral or downward vertical gradients are highest. Conversely, high specific capacity values are common along prominent joints perpendicular or oblique to strike. The similarity of the latter distribution to that of springs suggests these fractures are areas of upward-convergent flow. These differences between sinkhole and high specific capacity distributions suggest vertical flow components are primarily controlled by the orientation of geologic structure and associated subsurface fracturing.     

Application of a solute transport model under variable velocity conditions in a conduit flow aquifer: Olalde karst system, Basque Country, Spain

A model based on numerical solutions, which allows for solving the dispersion equation under variable recharge and velocity conditions, is developed to simulate solute transport in conduit flow aquifers during flow recession periods. As an example, the evolution of a tracer in the little known karst conduit that links the sinking stream of Oma valley to the Olalde spring is investigated in the karstic region of Santa Eufemia-Ereñozar (Basque Country, Spain). The model, with different hypothetical structures, allows for obtaining series of tracer breakthrough curves, which are fitted to experimental data using an optimization algorithm. These results, although they can be used to simulate the tracer evolution between the two points considered, do not allow for determining the internal structure and spatial disposition of contributions in the aquifer.     

Monitoring artificially stimulated fluid movement in the Cretaceous Dakota aquifer,western Kansas

Aquifer properties can be evaluated by monitoring artificially stimulated fluid movements between wells, if the fluid is heated. Changes in the temperature profile recorded in observation wells indicate the flow path of the heated fluid, which in effect acts as a tracer. A fluid-flow experiment in the Cretaceous Dakota Formation at the Hodgeman County site, west-central Kansas, demonstrated the advantage of using the distributed optical-fiber temperature sensing method for monitoring transient temperature conditions in this hydrological application. The fluid flow in the aquifer was increased by producing water from a pumping well and injecting heated water in an injection well 13 m (43 ft) distant from the pumping well. The time-temperature series data obtained and compared with results from previous pumping tests point to interwell heterogeneity of the aquifer and to a zone in the sandstone aquifer of high hydraulic conductivity. However, the experiment would have allowed further clarification of aquifer heterogeneity and thermal properties if at least one observation well had been present between the injection and production wells. Electronic Publication     

Field tracer test for denitrification in a pyrite-bearing schist aquifer

A small-scale artificial tracer test performed on a schist aquifer in Brittany has helped clarify mechanisms and kinetics of in situ autotrophic denitrification. NO₃ was injected as a pulse simultaneously with a conservative tracer -Br⁻. During the test, which lasted 210 h, 73% of the injected Br⁻ was recovered, as against only 47% of the NO₃. The 26% difference in the recovery of the two injected species is interpreted as being the result of denitrification, in part due to the direct oxidation of pyrite present in the solid aquifer according to the reaction: 5FeS₂+14NO₃⁻+4H⁺→7N₂+10SO₄²⁻+5Fe²⁺+2H₂O, and in part due to subsequent iron oxidation according to the reaction: NO₃⁻+5Fe²⁺+6H⁺→1/2N₂+5Fe³⁺+3H₂O. Despite the potential increase in SO₄ and Fe resulting from denitrification through pyrite oxidation, the concentrations of these elements in the groundwater remain moderate due to the precipitation of minerals such as jarosite and/or natroalunite. Tracer transfer takes place in a heterogeneous medium which, according to the breakthrough curves, can be simplified to a dual-porosity aquifer comprising a high-permeability (fractures or large fissures) medium of low porosity from which only minor denitrification of circulating NO₃-bearing water was observed and a low-permeability (small fissures) medium of high porosity which induces a higher denitrification rate in the circulating NO₃-bearing water. The kinetics of the denitrification reaction are high compared with results obtained for other environments and can be described by a first-order model with a half life of 7.9 days for the low-porosity medium and only 2.1 days for the high-porosity medium.