Landscape and sedimentary response to catastrophic debris avalanches, western Taranaki, New Zealand

Catastrophic volcanic debris avalanches reshape volcanic edifices with up to half of pre-collapse cone volumes being removed. Deposition from this debris avalanche deposit often fills and inundates the surrounding landscape and may permanently change the distribution of drainage networks. On the weakly-incised Mt. Taranaki ring-plain, volcanic debris avalanche deposits typically form a large, wedge shape (in plan view), over all flat-lying fans. Following volcanic debris avalanches a period of intense re-sedimentation commonly begins on ring-plain areas, particularly in wet or temperate climates. This is exacerbated by large areas of denuded landscape, ongoing instability in the scarp/source region, damming of river/stream systems, and in some cases inherent instability of the volcanic debris avalanche deposits. In addition, on Mt. Taranaki, the collapse of a segment of the cone by volcanic debris avalanche often generates long periods of renewed volcanism, generating large volumes of juvenile tephra onto unstable and unvegetated slopes, or construction of new domes with associated rock falls and block-and-ash flows. The distal ring-plain impact from these post-debris avalanche conditions and processes is primarily accumulation of long run-out debris flow and hyperconcentrated flow deposits with a variety of lithologies and sedimentary character. Common to these post-debris avalanche units is evidence for high-water-content flows that are typically non-cohesive. Hence sedimentary variations in these units are high in lateral and longitudinal exposure in relation to local topography. The post-collapse deposits flank large-scale fans and hence similar lithological and chronological sequences can form on widely disparate sectors of the ring plain. These deposits on Mt. Taranaki provide a record of landscape response and ring-plain evolution in three stages that divide the currently identified Warea Formation: 1) the deposition of broad fans of material adjacent to the debris avalanche unit; 2) channel formation and erosion of Stage 1 deposits, primarily at the contact between debris avalanche deposits and the Stage 1 deposits and the refilling of these channels; and 3) the development of broad tabular sheet flows on top of the debris avalanche, leaving sediments between debris avalanche mounds. After a volcanic debris avalanche, these processes represent an ever changing and evolving hazard-scape with hazard maps needing to be regularly updated to take account of which stage the sedimentary system is in.     

The Ischia debris avalanche: first clear submarine evidence in the Mediterranean of a volcanic island prehistorical collapse

Sector or flank collapse with related debris avalanches is increasingly recognized as a relatively common volcanic behaviour, in particular, for large, hot‐spot related oceanic islands. Here, we report the case of a catastrophic collapse that occurred at Ischia volcanic island in prehistorical times and was driven by the volcano‐tectonic uplift of Mt Epomeo, the major relief of the island. The collapse left a subaerial to submarine horseshoe scar on the southern flank of the island and generated a debris avalanche incorporating thousands of giant blocks dispersed as far as 50 km from the island. During the emplacement, part of the debris avalanche evolved into a debris flow covering an area of 250–300 km². This constitutes the first, clear evidence of a submarine debris avalanche in the Mediterranean Sea. The major collapse was followed, and probably also preceded, by recurrent, less catastrophic terrestrial and underwater failures. Two other undersea hummocky deposits are found north and west of the island and might tentatively be correlated to the major southern collapse. Such volcanic behaviour, previously unknown for Ischia Volcano, has likely triggered tsunami waves over the entire Bay of Naples raising the question of their impact on prehistorical/historical communities.     

From seamount to oceanic island, Porto Santo, central East-Atlantic

The uplifted and deeply eroded volcanic succession of Porto Santo (central East-Atlantic) is the product of a wide spectrum of dynamic processes that are active in shoaling to emergent seamounts. Two superimposed lapilli cones marking the base of the exposed section are interpreted as having formed from numerous submarine to subaerial phreatomagmatic explosions, pyroclastic fragmentation being subordinate. The lower basaltic and the upper mugearitic to trachytic sections are dominated by redeposited tephra and are called 'lapilli cone aprons'. Vertical growth due to accumulation of tephra, voluminous intrusions, and minor pillowed lava flows produced ephemeral islands which were subsequently leveled by wave erosion, as shown by conglomerate beds. Periods of volcanic quiescence are represented by abundant biocalcarenite lenses at several stratigraphic levels. The loose tephra piles became stabilized by widespread syn-volcanic intrusions such as dikes and trachytic to rhyolitic domes welding the volcanic and volcaniclastic ensemble into a solid edifice. Shattering of a submarine extrusive trachytic dome by pyroclastic and phreatomagmatic explosions, accentuated by quench fragmentation, resulted in pumice- and crystal-rich deposits emplaced in a prominent submarine erosional channel. The dome must have produced an island as indicated by a collapse breccia comprising surf-rounded boulders of dome material. Subaerial explosive activity is represented by scoria cones and tuff cones. Basaltic lava flows built a resistant cap that protected the island from wave erosion. Some lava flows entered the sea and formed two distinct types of lava delta: 1. closely-packed pillow lava and massive tabular lava flows along the southwestern coast of Porto Santo, and 2. a steeply inclined pillow-hyaloclastite breccia prism composed of foreset-bedded hydroclastic breccia, variably-shaped pillows, and thin sheet flows capped by subhorizontal submarine to subaerial lava flows along the eastern coast of Porto Santo.The facies architectures indicate emplacement: 1. on a gently sloping platform in southwestern Porto Santo, and 2. on steep offshore slopes along high energy shorelines in eastern Porto Santo.Growth of the pillow-hyaloclastite breccia prism is dominated by the formation of foreset beds but various types of syn-volcanic intrusions contributed significantly. Submarine flank eruptions occurred in very shallow water on the flanks of the hyaloclastite prism in eastern Porto Santo. The island became consolidated by intrusion of numerous dikes and by emplacement of prominent intrusions that penetrate the entire volcanic succession. Volcanic sedimentation ended with the emplacement of a debris avalanche that postdates the last subaerial volcanic activity.     

翠华山山崩地质遗迹景观离散元数值模拟

城市地质遗迹景观调查研究是城市地质工作的一项重要内容,而探索地质遗迹景观的成因则是挖掘其科学价值和实施保护措施的关键问题。以中国山崩奇观的翠华山山崩为研究对象,采用典型天然地震记录作为地震输入条件,借助离散元动力分析模块,对翠华山山崩的动力响应规律进行了数值模拟,再现了地震山崩的启动、加速、解体、堆积的全过程。研究结果表明:地震惯性力作用使山体质点加速度和速度产生放大效应,特别是山体顶部的动力放大效应最为显著,加速度放大系数达2.0; 翠花山山崩具有高速远程的特点,其前缘的崩塌体最大水平速度达44ms-1,崩落水平距离达460m,堵塞沟谷形成堰塞湖; 地震山崩的整个破坏过程包括4个阶段,分别为启动阶段、加速阶段、减速阶段和堆积阶段。     

Potential Flank-Collapse of Soufrière Volcano, Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles? Numerical Simulation and Hazards

The past history of recurrent flank collapses of la Soufrière volcano of Guadeloupe, its structure, its well-developed hydrothermal system and the current activity constitute factors that could promote a future flank collapse, particularly in the case of a significant increase of activity, with or without shallow magmatic input. To address the hazards associated with such a collapse, we model the emplacement of the debris avalanche generated by a flank-collapse event in 1,250 BC (3,100 years B.P.). We use a finite-difference grain-flow model solving mass and momentum conservation equations that are depth-averaged over the slide thickness, and a Coulomb-type friction law with a variable basal (minimum) friction angle. Using the parameter values determined from this simulation, we then simulate the debris avalanche which could be generated by a potential collapse of the present lava dome. We then discuss the region which could be affected by such a future collapse, and additional associated hazards of concern.     

Large volcanic landslide and debris avalanche deposit at Meru,Tanzania

Meru volcano is located within the Northern Tanzanian Divergence Zone where the east branch of the East African Rift splits into several branches. The 4565-m-high Meru volcano is breached on the east flank by a horseshoe-shaped scar following a major collapse associated with the Momella debris avalanche approximately 9000 years ago. Remote sensing combined with detailed field mapping allowed the characterisation of the Momella debris avalanche deposit, structure, and texture. Hummocks, ridges, lineaments, lobes, grabens and shear zones are observed on the surface of the deposit. The most common facies observed are the mixed facies with indurated and shattered outcrops and the matrix facies. The collapse involved a volume of 20 ± 2 km³ with a deposit that spread over an area of 1250 km², up to the base of Kilimanjaro. Based on field evidence, we suggest that water played a key role in the deformation, facies formation, avalanche emplacement and mobility of the entire deposit but to a lesser extent south of Ngurodoto complex. The deformation and emplacement of the avalanche were accommodated by both extension and shearing on a water-fluidised basal layer.     

关岭县沙营乡槽子六村一带崩塌（危岩带）特征及防治对策

关岭县北部岗乌永窝大寨6.28特大滑坡碎屑流灾害,造成99人死亡及失踪。通过调查类似地质条件下该地区地质灾害隐患分布情况。以该地区大田小学崩塌为代表分析该类型危岩带形成的原因及形成机理,分析了危岩体稳定性及发展趋势,并运用rockfail软件对滚石运动路径、影响范围、弹跳高度、运动能量做了分析。结合该地区自然条件,提出了相应的防治建议。对该地区类似崩塌（危岩）的防治,有一定的借鉴作用。     

Geological constraints on the dynamic emplacement of cone-sheets – The Ardnamurchan cone-sheet swarm,NW Scotland

Cone-sheets are a significant constituent of many central volcanoes, where they contribute to volcano growth by intrusion and through flank eruptions, although the exact emplacement mechanisms are still controversially discussed. In particular, it is not yet fully resolved whether cone-sheets propagate as magma-driven, opening-mode fractures or as shear fractures, and to what extent pre-existing host-rock structures and different stress fields influence cone-sheet emplacement. To shed further light on the role of these parameters in cone-sheet emplacement, we use detailed field and remote sensing data of the classic Ardnamurchan cone-sheet swarm in NW-Scotland, and we show that the cone-sheets primarily propagated as opening-mode fractures in the σ1–σ2 plane of the volcanic stress field. In addition, more than one third of the Ardnamurchan cone-sheet segments are parallel to lineaments that form a conjugate set of NNW and WNW striking fractures and probably reflect the regional NW–SE orientation of σ1 during emplacement in the Palaeogene. Cone-sheets exploit these lineaments within the NE and SW sectors of the Ardnamurchan central complex, which indicates that the local volcanic stress field dominated during sheet propagation and only allowed exploitation of host-rock discontinuities that were approximately parallel to the sheet propagation path. In addition, outcrop-scale deflections of cone-sheets into sills and back into cone-sheets (also referred to as “staircase” geometry) are explained by the interaction of stresses at the propagating sheet tip with variations in host-rock strength, as well as the influence of sheet-induced strain. As a consequence, cone-sheets associated with sill-like segments propagate as mixed-mode I/II fractures. Hence, cone-sheet emplacement requires a dynamic model that takes into account stress fields at various scales and the way propagating magma interacts with the host rock and its inherent variations in rock strength.     

Effects of model parameters,topography, and scale on the mass movement processes of debris avalanches using the discrete element method

The mass movement process of a debris avalanche is a complex dynamic system and is influenced by topographic conditions, material composition, sliding-bed surface conditions and other factors. A discrete element method is used to simulate the mass movement process of debris avalanches and is validated by laboratory flume tests. Sensitivity analyses for the model parameters show that a low bond strength indicates that a small impact force can lead to slope failure. The friction coefficient has a little effect on the mass movement process. However, high particle stiffness and bond strength causes the sliding material to behave like a rigid block of rock; therefore low bond strength and particle stiffness are selected to simulate the laboratory flume tests. The velocity of the sliding material increases with the increasing slope of the flume. If the sliding material hits a barrier, the travel direction will change and energy dissipation will occur, resulting in the sudden decrease in velocity. With an increase in landslide volume, the model parameters particle stiffness and parallel bond strength should be increased to ensure the reasonableness of the simulated results. When the landslide volume is not large enough, the selection of those model parameters has no significant effect on the movement process. The proper selection of model parameters is very important for the reasonableness of the simulated results.     

Stratigraphy and volcanology of the Türkbükü volcanics: products of a stratovolcano in the Bodrum Peninsula,SW Anatolia

The Middle‐Upper Miocene Bodrum magmatic complex of the Aegean region, southwestern Turkey, is mainly represented by intermediate stocks, lavas, pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits. Monzonitic stocks and connected porphyry intrusions and extrusions are the first products of the magmatism. These are followed by a volcanic succession consisting of andesitic‐latitic lavas, autobrecciated lavas, pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits. The final stage is represented by basaltic and basaltic andesitic flows and dykes intruded into previous units. The volcanic succession crops out in the northern part of the Bodrum peninsula. In the lower part of this succession are widespread pyroclastic deposits, composed of pyroclastic fall and flow units, alternating with epiclastic deposits. Grain size, volume and thickness of the pyroclastic deposits were mainly controlled by the type, magnitude and intensity of the eruption. Further up the section, there are two horizons of debris avalanche deposits forming the coarsest and thickest deposits of the volcaniclastic succession. The debris avalanche deposits indicate at least two different flank collapses coeval with the volcanism. The stratigraphy and map pattern of these volcanic units imply that the northern part of the Bodrum peninsula was the north‐facing flank of a stratovolcano during the mid‐Late Miocene. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emplacement age of the Markagunt gravity slide in southwestern Utah,USA

The Markagunt gravity slide (MGS) is a large-volume landslide in southwestern Utah that originated within the Oligocene-Miocene Marysvale volcanic field. Gravity slides are single emplacement events with long runout distances and are now recognized as a new class of volcanic hazard. Accumulation of volcanic material on a structurally weak substrate along with voluminous shallow intrusive events led to collapse. Here, ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar data for landslide-generated pseudotachylyte, the landslide-capping Haycock Mountain Tuff and the deformed Osiris Tuff are combined with a Bayesian age model to determine an emplacement age of 23.05 + 0.22/−0.20 Ma for the MGS. The results suggest a lag time of <200 kyr between the caldera-forming eruption of the Osiris Tuff, additional buildup of the unstable volcanic pile and subsequent mass movement.     

秦岭甘湫池花岗岩质崩塌振动台试验研究

地震诱发山体崩塌常形成巨大的灾害,特定地形地质条件下山体地震动力响应特性及破坏机制研究是工程地质的重要难题。本文以秦岭地区具代表性的翠华山甘湫池花岗岩崩塌为研究对象,制作有效反映花岗岩工程地质结构的试验模型,开展大型振动台试验,研究山体地震动力响应规律和崩塌变形破坏机制。试验发现,边坡内部加速度放大系数随激振强度的增加呈现出显著的三阶段变化趋势;水平加速度响应呈现出随高程的增加而单调增大的特征,而竖直加速度响应随着高程的增加出现先增加后减小再增加的波动变化特征;边坡的固有频率变化曲线可以分为3个阶段,整体呈现下降的趋势,表明边坡动力特性发生变化;破坏后的边坡可以分为2个区域:后缘启动区和崩塌堆积区。边坡在地震激振作用下的破坏过程为地震波激振输入→坡体后缘形成拉张裂缝→裂缝向下扩展贯通→不稳定坡体滑动→堆积坡脚。反演了山体破坏的4个阶段:振动致裂阶段、高速启动阶段、撞击减速阶段和堆积阶段,结果与现场工程地质调查分析十分一致。研究翠华山甘湫池花岗岩崩塌的发育特征、成因机理和演化过程,研究成果对揭示秦岭北缘乃至秦岭地区崩塌形成机制、发育规律和灾害有效防控、地质遗迹开发和保护具有重要意义。     

基底刮铲效应对岩石碎屑流停积过程的影响

岩石碎屑流在运移停积过程中,对运移路径存在强烈的刮铲效应。首先分析总结了碎屑流基底刮铲效应的特征,然后采用二维颗粒离散元模拟方法模拟岩石碎屑流水平基底上刮铲。模拟试验证明了基底刮铲效应可以增强岩石碎屑流在水平面上的运移停积能力。通过进一步研究水平基底物理力学性质和分层情况对刮铲效应和岩石碎屑流运移过程的影响,证明了减小基底物质的强度会增强刮铲效应,但基底表层松散堆积物质低密度、低强度的特点才是影响岩石碎屑流最大运移堆积距离的关键因素,并具有类似润滑剂的特性;相对地,基底底层高强度、高密度物质的强度变化对最大运移距离影响很小。     

A multiple-code simulation study of the long-term EDZ evolution of geological nuclear waste repositories

This simulation study shows how widely different model approaches can be adapted to model the evolution of the excavation disturbed zone (EDZ) around a heated nuclear waste emplacement drift in fractured rock. The study includes modeling of coupled thermal-hydrological-mechanical (THM) processes, with simplified consideration of chemical coupling in terms of time-dependent strength degradation or subcritical crack growth. The different model approaches applied in this study include boundary element, finite element, finite difference, particle mechanics, and elasto-plastic cellular automata methods. The simulation results indicate that thermally induced differential stresses near the top of the emplacement drift may cause progressive failure and permeability changes during the first 100 years (i.e., after emplacement and drift closure). Moreover, the results indicate that time-dependent mechanical changes may play only a small role during the first 100 years of increasing temperature and thermal stress, whereas such time-dependency is insignificant after peak temperature, because of decreasing thermal stress.     

青藏高原察达高速远程滑坡运动过程与形成机理

为了了解青藏高原察达高速远程滑坡的运动过程与形成机理,运用遥感测绘、无人机地形测绘和现场勘查资料对滑坡进行分区,对滑坡形成机理进行研究,并利用PFC2D数值模拟对地震工况下滑坡运动过程进行模拟.将察达高速远程滑坡分为源区,流通区和堆积区;数值模拟结果得到滑坡平均运动速度为15~20 m/s,运动时间150 s,最大运动距离为2 800 m.察达滑坡为地震条件下诱发的高速远程滑坡,源区砾岩对上部堆积体后缘铲刮推移,使得上部堆积体产生整体变形,其运动过程可分为崩滑→铲刮→滑移→堆积4个阶段.      

Topographic analysis of Devana Chasma, Venus: implications for rift system segmentation and propagation

Devana Chasma is a rift system on Venus formed in association with the Beta Regio and Phoebe Regio volcanic highlands, which are interpreted as mantle plumes. We present a new analysis of a 2500-km-long segment of Devana. Based on the rift topography, the horizontal extension across the rift boundary faults is 3–9 km. This is a lower bound on the total rift extension because the altimetry does not resolve the topographic relief across the numerous faults that are visible in radar images of the rift floor. The total extension across Devana is approximately 20 km, similar in magnitude to continental rift systems on Earth. Rift flank elevations are up to 3.1 km in the regions nearest the mantle plumes and decay strongly with increasing distance from the plumes, indicating a strong thermal component to the rift flank topography, unlike the situation usually reported for terrestrial rifts. As on Earth, there is also a flexural uplift component to the flank topography. Rift depths are up to 2.5 km below the surrounding plains, with considerable along-strike variability. There is a 600 km lateral offset along Devana Chasma near the mid-point between the two mantle plumes. Devana most likely formed as two distinct rifts due to the horizontal stresses created by outflow from the upwelling plumes. The offset zone formed as a result of the interaction between the two rift tips, which requires that upwelling at the two mantle plumes overlapped in time.     

火山构造组合研究和填图方法应用——以西藏措麦—邦多地区火山岩为例

以125万邦多区幅、措麦区幅火山岩区野外地质调查为基础,运用岩石地层-火山岩相-火山构造法一体化研究思路,吸收20世纪90年代以来国内外对火山学研究的新成果,并借鉴15万区域地质调查中大比例火山地质图编制的经验,从单个火山机构调查扩展到火山机构组合研究,从而填制出火山构造面貌清楚的古火山地质图,全面地反映了不同时期(旋回)火山作用特点、演化规律及火山岩相的分布特征,合理地建立起火山地层层序.     

Does vertical seismic force play an important role for the failure mechanism of rock avalanches? A case study of rock avalanches triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake of May 12, 2008, Sichuan,China

The Wenchuan earthquake triggered 15,000 rock avalanches, rockfalls and debris flows, causing a large number of causalities and widespread damage. Similar to many rock avalanches, field investigations showed that tensile failure often occurred at the back edge. Some soil and rock masses were moved so violently that material became airborne. The investigation indicates that this phenomenon was due to the effect of a large vertical seismic motion that occurred in the meizoseismal area during the earthquake. This paper analyses the effect of vertical earthquake force on the failure mechanism of a large rock avalanche using the Donghekou rock avalanche as an example. This deadly avalanche, which killed 780 people, initiated at an altitude of 1,300 m and had a total run-out distance of 2,400 m. The slide mass is mainly composed of Sinian limestone and dolomite limestone, together with Cambrian slate and phyllite. Static and dynamic stability analysis on the Donghekou rock avalanche has been performed using FLAC finite difference method software, under the actual seismic wave conditions as recorded on May 12, 2008. The results show that the combined horizontal and vertical peak acceleration caused a higher reduction in slope stability factor than horizontal peak acceleration alone. In addition, a larger area of tensile failure at the back edge of the avalanche was generated when horizontal and vertical peak acceleration were combined than when only horizontal acceleration was considered. The force of the large vertical component of acceleration was the main reason rock and soil masses became airborne during the earthquake.     

Process dependence of grain size distributions in rock avalanche deposits

Rock avalanches are a form of hazardous long-runout landslide and leave fragmented deposits of complex sedimentology that, if studied in detail, can provide insight into their emplacement processes. Complexity arises due to the myriad overlapping factors known to contribute to the final deposit fabric, such as source structures, lithology (i.e. material properties), topographic feedback, substrate interaction and emplacement processes (i.e. internal factors), as well as our reliance on (un)suitable exposures. Herein, we present sedimentological data from two carbonate rock avalanche deposits (Tschirgant in Austria and Flims in Switzerland), where changes in lithology can be eliminated from the causal equation due to their largely mono-mineralic composition. We further eliminated the effects of external influences such as topography or substrate interactions by detailed facies mapping of the deposit interior. Since sedimentary properties locally vary within less than 1-m² outcrop area, emplacement processes are the only causes that remain to explain the different fabrics. Characteristic (fractal) grain size distributions of three distinctive sub-facies in the interior of these, and other, rock avalanche deposits—jigsaw-fractured, fragmented, and shear zone facies—can be linked to specific processes acting during emplacement. We suggest that a heterogeneously distributed and progressively increasing particle breakage in the moving granular mass best explains the ranges of fractal dimensions and associated features for the respective sub-facies, from simple breakage along pre-existing planes, through dynamic fragmentation which locally minimises coordination number, to zones of shear concentration. No exotic emplacement mechanisms (such as air-layer lubrication or fluidised substrates) are required to produce these features; continued, heterogeneous degrees of fragmentation of an initially intact source rock best explains the sedimentary record of rock avalanches.