In Memoriam: Mikhail Konstantinovich Ivanov, 1945–2012

The guest editors Marc De Batist and Oleg Khlystov dedicate this special double issue of Geo-Marine Letters, presenting contributions from the 10th International Conference on Gas in Marine Sediments (September 2010, Lake Baikal, Russia), to the memory of Mikhail Konstantinovich Ivanov. The author of this In Memoriam is Alexei Suzyumov, former staff member of UNESCO responsible for the TTR program.     

Contributions from the 9th International Conference on Gas in Marine Sediments, University of Bremen, 15–19 September 2008

Following the first International Conference on Gas in Marine Sediments in Edinburgh, UK (1990), another eight successful conferences have provided a continuous forum for scientists from a variety of disciplines, organisations and countries. The 9th meeting of the Shallow Gas Group was held in September 2008 in Bremen, a hanseatic city more than 1,200 years old in northern Germany. The Shallow Gas Group was joined for this conference by participants of the HERMES EU-funded project and by members of an industry-funded project. Volume 30 (3/4) of Geo-Marine Letters is a double issue containing 25 selected papers from the 9th conference in Bremen, guest edited by G. Bohrmann and B.B. Jørgensen. The papers represent the broad spectrum of oral and poster contributions from the conference, covering a wide range of aspects of gas in marine sediments from many parts of the world. The next conference of the Shallow Gas Group is planned to be held in Listvyanka at Lake Baikal, Russia, in September 2010.     

Contributions from the 10th International Conference on Gas in Marine Sediments, Listvyanka (Russia), 6–11 September 2010

The 10th International Conference on Gas in Marine Sediments (GIMS10) took place from 6 to 11 September 2010 in Listvyanka (Russia), on the shores of Lake Baikal. The conference was organized as a double jubilee, celebrating both the fact that it was the 10th event in this series and the 20th anniversary of the series. A total of 72 oral and 47 poster presentations were given in eight thematic sessions and the presentations were discussed by 126 participants from academic, governmental and commercial institutions from 19 countries, consisting of geologists, biologists, microbiologists, geophysicists, geochemists, oceanographers and limnologists. Volume 32(5/6) of Geo-Marine Letters is a double issue containing 16 selected papers from GIMS10, and has been guest edited by M. De Batist and O. Khlystov. The papers reflect the broad-spectrum disciplines represented at the conference and cover a wide range of aspects of gas in marine sediments from many parts of the world, but with a special emphasis on the gas seeps, gas hydrates and mud volcanoes of Lake Baikal.     

Acoustic evidence of shallow gas accumulations and active pockmarks in the ?zmir Gulf, Aegean sea

Based on high-resolution Chirp seismic, multibeam bathymetry and side scan sonar data collected in the ?zmir Gulf, Aegean Sea in 2008 and 2010, gas-related structures have been identified, which can be classified into three categories: (1) shallow gas accumulations and gas chimneys, (2) mud diapirs, and (3) active and inactive pockmarks. On the Chirp profiles, shallow gas accumulations were observed along the northern coastline of the outer ?zmir Gulf at 3-20 m below the seabed. They appear as acoustic turbidity zones and are interpreted as biogenic gas accumulations produced in organic-rich highstand fan sediments from the Gediz River. The diapiric structures are interpreted as shale or mud diapirs formed under lateral compression due to regional counter-clockwise rotation of Anatolian microplate. Furthermore, the sedimentary structure at the flanks suggests a continuous upward movement of the diapirs. Several pockmarks exist close to fault traces to the east of Hekim Island; most of them were associated with acoustic plumes indicating active degassing during the survey period in 2008. Another Chirp survey was carried out just over these plumes in 2010 to demonstrate if the gas seeps were still active. The surveys indicate that the gas seep is an ongoing process in the gulf. Based on the Chirp data, we proposed that the pockmark formation in the area can be explained by protracted seep model, whereby sediment erosion and re-distribution along pockmark walls result from ongoing (or long lasting) seepage of fluids over long periods of time. The existence of inactive pockmarks in the vicinity, however, implies that gas seepage may eventually cease or that it is periodic. Most of the active pockmarks are located over the fault planes, likely indicating that the gas seepage is controlled by active faulting.     

Methane fluxes in the southeastern Baltic Sea

New data from surveys of gas-bearing mud areas in the Gdansk Deep (southeastern Baltic Sea) were collected during four research cruises in 2009–2011. These revealed the presence of seven large pockmarks apart from the three already known, and enabled significant improvement of the existing digital map of gassy mud distribution. Based on geochemical sediment analyses, calculated diffusive methane fluxes from the upper (0–5?cm) seabed layer into near-bottom waters were highest—3.3?mmol/(m²?day)—in pockmark mud, contrasting strongly with the minimum value of 0.004?mmol/(m²?day) observed in typical, background mud. However, fluxes of less than 0.1?mmol/(m²?day) were observed in all sediment types, including pockmarks. In a newer attempt to roughly estimate budgets at a more regional scale, diffusive methane venting amounts to 280?×?10⁶?mmol/day for southeastern Baltic Sea muddy sediments. Elongated pockforms in the southern Gotland Deep, known since the end of the 1980s as pockmarks, had methane concentrations that were similar to those of gassy mud from the Gdansk Basin, and there was no geo-acoustic evidence of considerably increased gas levels.     

南海东北陆坡海底微地貌特征及其天然气渗漏模式

海底天然气渗漏是海洋环境中广泛分布的自然现象,在世界各大洋中都有发现。海底渗漏可以极大地改变海底地貌特征,形成多种与之相关的微地貌类型。海底渗漏和天然气水合物的赋存具有密切的关系,海底渗漏区常伴有埋藏浅、饱和度高的天然气水合物。对南海东北部陆坡海域浅地层剖面、多波束测深和地震反射剖面等资料进行综合研究,识别出海底麻坑、海底丘状体、大型海底圆丘、泥火山等与海底天然气渗漏有关的微地貌类型,且麻坑、海底丘状体／大型海底圆丘、泥火山微地貌分别代表了浅覆盖层快速天然气渗漏、浅覆盖层中等速度天然气渗漏和厚覆盖层快速天然气渗漏3种天然气渗漏模式。以海底丘状体微地貌及声空白反射特征的浅层天然气聚集带,成为块状水合物最理想的发育场所,这可能成为南海北部陆坡勘察块状水合物的重要识别标志。     

Three dimensional seismic studies of deep-water hazard-related features on the northern slope of South China Sea

Mass transport deposits and geological features related to fluid flow such as gas chimneys, mud diapirs and volcanos, pockmarks and gas hydrates are pervasive on the canyon dominated northern slope of the Pearl River Mouth basin of the South China Sea. These deposits and structures are linked to serious geohazards and are considered risk factors for seabed installations. Based on high resolution three dimensional seismic surveys, seismic characteristics, distributions and origins of these features are analyzed. A distribution map is presented and geometrical parameters and spatial distribution patterns are summarized. Results show that various groups of the mapped features are closely tied to local or regional tectonism and sedimentary processes. Mass transport complexes are classified as slides near the shelf break, initially deformed slumps on the flanks of canyons and highly deformed slumps on the lower slope downslope of the mouth of canyons. We propose them to be preconditioned by pore pressure changes related to sea level fluctuations, steep topography, and fluid and fault activities. Gas chimneys are mainly located in the vicinity of gas reservoirs, while bottom-simulating reflectors are observed within the gas chimney regions, suggesting gas chimneys serve as conduits for thermogenic gas. Mud diapirs/volcanos and pockmarks are observed in small numbers and the formation of pockmarks is related to underlying gas chimneys and faults. This study aims at reducing risks for deep-water engineering on the northern slope of South China Sea.     

Distribution and expression of gas seeps in a gas hydrate province of the northeastern Sakhalin continental slope, Sea of Okhotsk

Multidisciplinary surveys were conducted to investigate gas seepage and gas hydrate accumulation on the northeastern Sakhalin continental slope (NESS), Sea of Okhotsk, during joint Korean–Russian–Japanese expeditions conducted from 2003 to 2007 (CHAOS and SSGH projects). One hundred sixty-one gas seeps were detected in a 2000 km² area of the NESS (between 53°45′N and 54°45′N). Active gas seeps in a gas hydrate province on the NESS were evident from features in the water column, on the seafloor, and in the subsurface: well-defined hydroacoustic anomalies (gas flares), side-scan sonar structures with high backscatter intensity (seepage structures), bathymetric structures (pockmarks and mounds), gas- and gas-hydrate-related seismic features (bottom-simulating reflectors, gas chimneys, high-amplitude reflectors, and acoustic blanking), high methane concentrations in seawater, and gas hydrates in sediment near the seafloor. These expressions were generally spatially related; a gas flare would be associated with a seepage structure (mound), below which a gas chimney was present. The spatial distribution of gas seeps on the NESS is controlled by four types of geological structures: faults, the shelf break, seafloor canyons, and submarine slides. Gas chimneys that produced enhanced reflection on high-resolution seismic profiles are interpreted as active pathways for upward gas migration to the seafloor. The chimneys and gas flares are good indicators of active seepage.     

Mapping gas hydrate and fluid flow indicators and modeling gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) in the Ulleung Basin,East (Japan) Sea: Potential linkage between the occurrence of mass failures and gas hydrate dissociation

The Ulleung Basin, East (Japan) Sea, is well-known for the occurrence of submarine slope failures along its entire margins and associated mass-transport deposits (MTDs). Previous studies postulated that gas hydrates which broadly exist in the basin could be related with the failure process. In this study, we identified various features of slope failures on the margins, such as landslide scars, slide/slump bodies, glide planes and MTDs, from a regional multi-channel seismic dataset. Seismic indicators of gas hydrates and associated gas/fluid flow, such as the bottom-simulating reflector (BSR), seismic chimneys, pockmarks, and reflection anomalies, were re-compiled. The gas hydrate occurrence zone (GHOZ) within the slope sediments was defined from the BSR distribution. The BSR is more pronounced along the southwestern slope. Its minimal depth is about 100 m below seafloor (mbsf) at about 300 m below sea-level (mbsl). Gas/fluid flow and seepage structures were present on the seismic data as columnar acoustic-blanking zones varying in width and height from tens to hundreds of meters. They were classified into: (a) buried seismic chimneys (BSC), (b) chimneys with a mound (SCM), and (c) chimneys with a depression/pockmark (SCD) on the seafloor. Reflection anomalies, i.e., enhanced reflections below the BSR and hyperbolic reflections which could indicate the presence of gas, together with pockmarks which are not associated with seismic chimneys, and SCDs are predominant in the western-southwestern margin, while the BSR, BSCs and SCMs are widely distributed in the southern and southwestern margins. Calculation of the present-day gas-hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) shows that the base of the GHSZ (BGHSZ) pinches out at water depths ranging between 180 and 260 mbsl. The occurrence of the uppermost landslide scars which is below about 190 mbsl is close to the range of the GHSZ pinch-out. The depths of the BSR are typically greater than the depths of the BGHSZ on the basin margins which may imply that the GHOZ is not stable. Close correlation between the spatial distribution of landslides, seismic features of free gas, gas/fluid flow and expulsion and the GHSZ may suggest that excess pore-pressure caused by gas hydrate dissociation could have had a role in slope failures.     

Active mud volcanism in the West Alboran Basin: Geochemical evidence of hydrocarbon seepage

The West Alboran Basin was previously classified as a mud volcanic province consisting of two mud volcano (MV) fields that are inactive at the present day: the Northern (Spanish) and the Southern (Moroccan) fields. The discovery of the first active mud volcano (Carmen; cruise TTR-17) in 2008, along with several pockmarks at the central part of the basin, motivates more careful geological and geochemical analysis of previous data and comparison to new observations.Gas bubbling from the crater of Carmen MV was observed and recorded using an underwater TV-system and a large TV-grab sample. The gas mainly consisted of methane with less than 1% wetness. However, all sets of homologues up to pentane were detected in the mud breccia of Carmen MV. Both molecular and stable carbon isotopic compositions, and their distribution along the core length, suggest a deep thermogenic source of hydrocarbons (HCs). Composition of the pore water from Carmen MV also points to a deep source of mud volcanic water. The isotopic results indicate that the source of mud volcanic water is the dehydration of clay minerals in the thermal zone of the smectite-to-illite transformation. Our observations allow us to infer the presence of structure II gas hydrates in mud breccia on the top of Carmen MV.High HC gas saturation in sediments in some pockmarks accompanied with live chemosynthetic fauna directly indicates the strong seepage activity of these structures. For the first time, authigenic carbonate crusts and chimneys with associated living chemosynthetic bivalves and tubeworms were sampled from a seep site in the West Alboran Sea. Authigenic carbonates consist of aragonite and calcite, and are characterized by a light carbon isotopic signature, up to −37.2‰ PDB, which points to their methane-derived origin.     

Occurrence of pockmarks on the Ortegal Spur continental margin,Northwestern Iberian Peninsula

A total of 445 pockmarks were observed on the upper continental slope of the northwest corner of the Iberian Peninsula (the Ortegal Spur area) by swath bathymetric and ultrahigh resolution seismic data. The pockmarks are U-, V- and W-shaped and have terraces or indentations in cross-section, and are dish-shaped (circular to oval) in plan view. They occur on the surface of the seabed and buried within the Plio-Quaternary and Neogene sediments. Four types of pockmarks were identified and mapped on the basis of their plan-view and cross-section morphology: regular, irregular, asymmetric and composite. The concentration of pockmarks is attributed to seepage of fluids migrating up-dip from deeper parts of the sedimentary basin. A linear high-density concentration with a NNW to N, NE and ESE trend of pockmarks is observed above inferred basement faults that do not affect the Quaternary succession. These pockmarks are thus caused by seepage of thermogenic gas and/or other pore fluids from deeper Late Cretaceous units, and their distribution may help to improve our understanding of the fluid system and migration regime in this part of the Galicia continental margin.     

南海礼乐盆地海底麻坑地貌及成因分析

本文基于高分辨率多波束测深和浅地层剖面数据,首次对南海礼乐盆地南部坳陷海底麻坑进行了系统的识别研究。共识别出各类麻坑81个,其中麻坑直径最大约2.4 km,坑深最大约157 m。麻坑种类多样:按平面形态主要分为圆形、椭圆形、拉长形和新月形麻坑;按组合方式分为孤立麻坑、链状麻坑和复合麻坑;按直径分为正常麻坑和大型麻坑。区域内发育多条大型海底峡谷,峡谷侵蚀引起两侧地层稳定性降低,气体储层遭受破坏,泄露的气体沿断层或气烟囱等喷发出海底形成麻坑。而因麻坑生成时剥蚀的沉积物质与周围水体混合并逐渐发展成浊流,在一定程度上促进海底峡谷向下延伸。研究区内单个麻坑的平面形态最初为圆形或椭圆形,之后由于重力流和峡谷侵蚀的影响,逐渐发展成拉长形或新月形,麻坑之间也会发生组合形成复合麻坑。链状麻坑与冲沟的形成联系密切,沿垂直于等深线方向展布的链状麻坑在重力流的冲刷下,发育成底部平坦的麻坑冲沟。对比分析全球其他海域麻坑,发现海底麻坑尺寸与水深关系密切,在深水区域更容易发育大型麻坑。     

Severe winter weather as a response to the lowest Arctic sea-ice anomalies

Possible impact of reduced Arctic sea-ice on winter severe weather in China is investigated regarding the snowstorm over southern China in January 2008. The sea-ice conditions in the summer （July-September） and fall （September-November） of 2007 show that the sea-ice is the lowest that year. During the summer and fall of 2007, sea ice displayed a significant decrease in the East Siberian, the northern Chukchi Sea, the western Beaufort Sea, the Barents Sea, and the Kara Sea. A ECHAM5.4 atmospheric general circula- tion model is forced with realistic sea-ice conditions and strong thermal responses with warmer surface air temperature and higher-than-normal heat flux associated with the sea-ice anomalies are found. The model shows remote atmospheric responses over East Asia in January 2008, which result in severe snowstorm over southern China. Strong water-vapor transported from the Bay of Bengal and from the Pacific Ocean related to Arctic sea-ice anomalies in the fall （instead of summer） of 2007 is considered as one of the main causes of the snowstorm formation.     

Formation mechanism of large pockmarks in the subaqueous Yellow River Delta

Abstract

We have identified large pockmarks in an area of approximately 0.3?km² in the subaqueous Yellow River Delta in the Chengdao Sea. Gas eruption channels not been identified in the sediment layers in this area, and the formation mechanism of these large pockmarks remains unknown. To study the formation mechanism of these large pockmarks, we constructed a layered silty sediment model composed of appropriate geological materials. Then, we calculated the stress, displacement, and excess pore pressure in the layered silty sediment from the surface to a depth of 10?m using the Biot theory. A comparative analysis of the calculated results and the data measured in the field was then performed. Based on these results, we established a new formation mechanism for the large pockmarks. With the occurrence of storm waves, two extreme areas of displacement and excess pore pressure appeared in the layered silty sediment. These extreme values increased quickly in the seabed during the continuous action of storm waves. When the excess pore pressure surpassed the effective stress, the top silty layer instantly liquefied and then reconsolidated. Then, when the pore pressure of the interface position exceeded the effective stress produced by the overlying sediment, the sediments experienced “sand boil” damage. With the repeated action of strong waves, the boundary of the pockmark continued to expand, forming a large and stable pockmark. This work is of great value for further understanding and mitigating marine geologic hazards, such as coastal erosion, silt deposition, and unstable sediment, in the subaqueous Yellow River Delta.     

Numerical simulation of upwelling currents in pockmarks,and data from the Inner Oslofjord,Norway

The deflection of oceanic or tidal currents into pockmarks has been studied by both general three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics simulations and acoustic measurements in a number of pockmarks in the Inner Oslofjord, Norway. The modeling demonstrates upstream convergence of flow lines, followed by upwelling over the pockmark. This upwelling is an effect of deflected regional currents, not of expulsion of fluids or gas from the seafloor, and is sufficiently strong to prevent the settling of fine particles. The field measurements, although noisy at low vertical velocities, are consistent with the hypothesis of upwelling. The reduction in sedimentation rate inferred over the pockmarks (relative to that of the flat surrounding seabed) can explain the maintenance, or even deepening of pockmarks in the absence of fluid or gas seepage. The current pattern may also have consequences for the marine biology of pockmarks.     

Hydrocarbon plumbing systems above the Snøhvit gas field: Structural control and implications for thermogenic methane leakage in the Hammerfest Basin,SW Barents Sea

Based on the analysis of the high-resolution 3D seismic data from the SW Barents Sea we study the hydrocarbon plumbing system above the Snøhvit and Albatross gas field to investigate the geo-morphological manifestation and the dynamics of leakage from the reservoir. Fluid and gas escape to the seafloor is manifested in this area as mega-pockmarks 1–2 km-wide, large pockmarks (<100 m wide) and giant pockmarks 100–300 m-wide. The size of the mega pockmarks to the south of the study area may indicate more vigorous venting, whilst the northern fluid flow regime is probably characterised by a widespread fluid and gas release. Buried mega depressions and large-to-giant pockmarks are also identified on the base Quaternary and linked to deep and shallow faults as well as to seismic pipes. A high density of buried and seafloor giant pockmarks occur above a network of faults overlying an interpreted Bottom Simulating Reflector (BSR), whose depth coincides with the estimated base of the hydrate stability zone for a thermogenically derived gas hydrate with around 90 mol% methane. Deep regional faults provide a direct route for the ascending thermogenic fluids from the reservoir, which then leaked through the shallow faults linked to seismic pipes. It is proposed that the last episodic hydrocarbon leakage from the reservoir was responsible for providing a methane source for the formation of gas hydrates. We inferred that at least two temporally and dynamically different fluid and gas venting events took place in the study area: (1) prior to late Weichselian and recorded on the Upper Regional Unconformity (URU) and (2) following the Last Glacial Maximum between ∼17 and 16 cal ka BP and recorded on the present-day seafloor.     

北黄海海底麻坑群形态的定量研究及控制因素

本文基于高分辨率多波束水深数据和反向散射强度数据,对北黄海海底麻坑群的形态参数进行定量研究,结合水深、地形坡度和后向散射强度的变化准确界定了麻坑的轮廓,识别出圆形、椭圆形、拉长型麻坑共282个,并在ArcGIS软件中对其形态参数进行了分析计算,麻坑的平均长轴1.36 km,短轴0.78 km,直径0.94 km,面积0.88 km2,平均周长3.82 km,长宽比1.83,深度0.3~2.5 m,平均面积密集度13%,麻坑的剖面形态有麻坑边缘凹陷、中部有明显凸起（W1型）,麻坑边缘凹陷、中部略凸起（W2型）,麻坑中部单纯凹陷（V型）,分别集中分布在麻坑群的北部、南部、西部。麻坑的平面规模大、深度小的原因与地层中形成麻坑的游离气体浓度较小有关,也可能受到了地震、海啸等外力的诱发。麻坑的长轴优势走向为ENE-WSW、NNE-SSW,底流对其形状的塑造起了较大作用,部分麻坑成串排列,形成串珠状的麻坑链,其排列方式受到海底古河道、古潟湖等沉积地层结构的控制。海底麻坑群发育区反向散射强度为-60~-71 dB,麻坑内部较麻坑外部平均高5 dB,可能为麻坑内部气体泄漏引起海底沉积物被剥蚀后残留下的粗颗粒物质或海底生物活动留下的遗迹导致的。     

南海北部神狐海域水合物赋存层位古环境和古生产率

天然气水合物作为一种新型的清洁能源,其形成需要稳定的有机质供应。南海北部神狐海域为天然气水合物成藏的有利区域,2017年中国地质调查局在神狐海域水合物试采获得突破性成功。为了进一步了解古环境和古生产率对形成水合物有机质供应的影响,对南海北部神狐海域水合物钻探区SH3站位180～215mbsf(meters below the sea floor)层位,尤其是水合物主要赋存层位190～200mbsf的古环境、古生产率以及陆源碎屑物质的地球化学指标进行分析研究。研究表明水合物主要赋存层位陆源碎屑物质(TDM)输入增加,较高的陆源碎屑物质输入和次氧化的沉积环境共同造就了比较好的有机质的外部保存条件;同时较强的水动力条件,有利于藻类生物的繁殖,因此,生物成因有机质比较丰富,再加上神狐海域有比较良好的热解气的形成条件,这3个层面共同保证了神狐海域具有比较充足的有机质供应。     

Pockmarks: Submarine vents of natural gas or freshwater seeps?

Shallow depressions (pockmarks) in recent sediments of the western Baltic Sea were investigated as the possible surface expression of a deeper-seated hydrocarbon reservoir or a submarine freshwater discharge. Hydrocarbon gases extracted from the recent sediments associated with pockmarks had molecular and isotopic compositions different from those in the deeper Schwedeneck field. Salinities in the vicinity of the pockmarks decreased from brackish Baltic seawater to freshwater conditions with depth. Freshwater outflow from underlying glacial sediment aquifers is the likely cause of these pockmarks.