Quantifying weather conditions for rock fall hazard management

Relationships between weather conditions and rock fall occurrences have been acknowledged in the past, but seldom have such relationships been quantified and published. Rock falls are frequent hazards along transportation corridors through mountainous terrain, and predicting hazardous rock fall periods based on weather conditions can enhance mitigation approaches. We investigate the relationship between weather conditions and rock fall occurrences along a railway section through the Canadian Cordillera. Monthly weather-rock fall trends suggest that the seasonal variation in rock fall frequency is associated with cycles of freezing and thawing during the winter months. The intensity of precipitation and freeze–thaw cycles for different time-windows was then compared against recorded rock falls on a case-by-case approach. We found that periods when 90% of rock falls occurred could be predicted by the 3-day antecedent precipitation and freeze–thaw cycles. Some rock falls not predicted by this 3-day antecedent approach occurred during the first two weeks of spring thaw. These findings are used to propose a rock fall hazard chart, based on readily available weather data, to aid railway operators in their decision-making regarding safe operations.     

楔形体破坏模式下红层边坡岩体质量SMR法评价

简要介绍了边坡岩体质量分类的SMR法,将之应用于2个典型楔形体破坏模式下红层岩体高边坡稳定性宏观评价。 指出在评价过程中要注意对边坡起控制作用的优势结构面,并将其作为SMR法中结构面项评分的主要依据,这样得出的评分 值与边坡的实际情况才会比较相符。对地应力的影响进行了定性的分析,指出高地应力地区边坡SMR法应该慎用。     

边坡工程勘察中崩塌落石运动模式及轨迹分析

崩塌落石作为边坡尤其是高陡边坡的一种浅表部破坏方式,是严重的地质灾害之一.它突发性强,随机性大,速度快,发生猛烈,一直是边坡工程勘察中的重点.由于形成崩塌落石灾害的危岩体多分布于高陡边坡上,从源头完全治理将耗费巨大的人力物力,目前更多的是采取致灾前的落石防护措施.本文在某典型公路沿线岩质边坡崩塌落石灾害工程勘察中运用运...     

白莲洞遗址危岩体形成机理及破坏模式

以广西柳州白莲洞遗址崖体为研究对象,经地质调查发现,白莲洞遗址崖体存在共计47处不稳定岩体,崖体岩性主要为厚层灰岩,岩溶发育且该厚层灰岩岩体节理裂隙十分发育,存在着诸多危岩体。通过野外地质调查与室内理论分析表明:白莲洞遗址崖体陡峭,灰岩厚层,层理面、构造裂隙、岩溶裂隙和卸荷裂隙发育,在持续暴雨、地震的强有力触发下导致山体松弛,变形加剧,形成了以柱状、楔形体状、块状为主的特大型危岩体,且多处于高位-特高位,从而表现出倾倒、滑移和少量坠落及其复合型的多种破坏模式;其变形破坏绝非突发,厚层块状构造、岩溶发育、坚硬灰岩夹白云岩透镜体及发育的节理裂隙是其形成的主要先天基础因素;降水的渗入、岩溶裂隙水的溶蚀及强烈的根劈作用为其主要触发因素。      

Dynamics and mass balance of the 2007 Cima Una rockfall (Eastern Alps, Italy)

On October 12th, 2007 about 40,000 m³ of dolomitic rock detached from the northern wall of the peak known as “Cima Una” (Val Fiscalina, Sesto Dolomites, Bolzano, Italy), and fell 900 m to Fiscalina Valley below. The event generated a dense dust cloud, which traveled up to 4 km from the source area. The failure surface was formed by two near-vertical surfaces, almost perpendicular to each other. The orientation of these surfaces is consistent with two of the main regional tectonic sets. Only a small portion of the fallen material appeared to be preserved as blocks deposited at the base of the rock wall. About a fifth of the fallen mass was deposited on a colluvial cone. The missing mass, estimated to be about 80 %, may be represented by highly fragmented rock in part deposited as sand on the valley floor and in part dispersed as a dense dust cloud generated during the rockfall. There appears to be a deficit of deposited material, which could lead underestimation in the calculation of rock–cliff recession rates. The dynamics of the rockfall, strongly conditioned by the local topography, partially explains the intense rock breakage and the generation of the dust cloud. The rockfall was not caused by an external trigger, such as an earthquake or heavy rainfall; the failure was most likely progressive due to mechanical and physical degradation along highly stressed failure surfaces, possibly promoted by permafrost degradation and freeze and thaw processes.     

贵州开阳县龙井湾崩塌地质灾害评估及防治

龙井湾崩塌是磷矿开采引发和加剧的,龙井湾沟谷分布有崩塌6处。文章通过对崩塌区地质环境的勘查,阐述了该区的地质构造、岩性条件、水文地质条件及当前存在的采空区范围及特点,继而采用概率法对采空区上覆的岩体稳定性进行分析,得出了磷矿层的开采将在其上方相应的地表造成一定的变形与移动的结论,阐明了该区崩塌产生的机理,评估了崩塌体的引发和加剧对磷石膏堆场工程的危害性,提出了禁采区范围、清理危岩体(壁)等防治的工程措施。     

High lateral strain ratio in jointed rock masses

Rock masses encountered in the field are jointed and highly anisotropic. An important manifestation of this characteristic of rock masses is that the blocks, when slipping, separate and create voids in the mass resulting in high lateral strain even under low axial stress. It has been shown in this study that the ratio of lateral to axial strain may be very high, especially, if the joints are critically oriented. The assumption of isotropic linearly elastic material is not applicable in such situations. This observation is based on the outcome of an extensive laboratory testing programme, in which a large number of specimens of a jointed rock mass with various joint configurations were tested under uniaxial loading conditions. The trends of experimental results for both lateral strain ratio and rock mass strength have also been verified through distinct element modelling. The reason for high lateral strains has been attributed to the creation of voids and also to the fact that permanent deformations due to slip commence along rock joints right from the start of loading process. A simple mechanistic model has also been suggested to explain the high values of lateral strain for rough and dilatant rock joints. The lateral strains in such situations are important in the design of rock bolts. An example from a recently completed hydroelectric project has also been discussed where high lateral strain was found to be responsible for excessive wall closure and failure of rock bolts.     

Instability and geotechnical problems of the Buddha niches and surrounding cliff in Bamiyan Valley,central Afghanistan

This paper describes the slope-instability processes and geological hazards affecting the historical site of Bamiyan, central Afghanistan, a major world-cultural heritage site. Here, two standing Buddhas carved in rock during the 2nd–4th centuries A.D. were destroyed by the Taliban in March 2001. There are very evident slope instabilities resulting from both explosions and natural processes: rock slides and rock falls had already occurred in the past and most areas are prone to collapse. Under the coordination of UNESCO, field data were collected and laboratory tests were performed to determine mechanisms for potential evolution of the cliff and niches. Areas of greatest instability, based on the field survey and data interpretation for both the small and great Buddha niches and surrounding cliff, were determined. This information helps to identify the most suitable method for restoration, in accord with the high cultural value of this site.     

Electromagnetic signals associated with stick–slip of quartz-free rocks

We recorded clear transients in the electric and magnetic fields upon sudden slip in stick–slip experiments on dry, cylindrically shaped, quartz-free rock specimens of basalt and peridotite with a 30° saw-cut (representing a fault) at confining pressures of up to 120 MPa. The amplitudes of the measured electric field signals were always higher at the electrode pair oriented parallel to the strike of the fault than at the pair oriented perpendicular. This anisotropy suggests a preferred electric polarization normal to the slip surface. The transients in the electric and magnetic fields were observed only when the fault slip occurred by stick–slip mode, not by a stable mode of the sliding, and the amplitudes of the electric field signals increased with increasing stress drop. It is suggested that the generation process of the electromagnetic signals is closely related to the characteristic behavior of the fault at the time of the initiation of slip during stick–slip events, probably with respect to the intensity of the signals. We propose that one or both of the following two processes characteristic of the fault at the time of the initiation of slip during stick–slip events are essential for the generation of detectable electromagnetic signals: rapid slip along the simulated fault and separation of the rock masses across the fault.     

爆破影响下岩质高边坡浅表层块体稳定性研究

摘要:岩质高边坡整体稳定性主要受软弱结构面及其组合控制,在组合有利的情况下,边坡主要发生浅表层块体失稳,开挖时的爆破振动作用是影响浅表层块体稳定的重要因素。本文以大渡河中游某岩质块状结构高边坡为例研究浅表层块体的稳定性,在总结浅表层块体失稳特征的基础上,实测爆破振动曲线,进行块体稳定性评价。研究结果表明,开挖后已失稳浅表层块体大多小于10m3,80%受软弱结构面控制,70%集中在马道下缘;实测的浅表层块体爆破振动加速度曲线显示,与邻近围岩相比,浅表层块体振动持续时间长,频率低,峰值小;等效静力法评价结果较爆破参数推算法更适用于临界失稳浅表层块体的稳定性评价。     

Analysis of rock drainage and cooling experiments for underground cryogenic LNG storage

Hydrogeological monitoring was conducted around a pilot cavern for underground cryogenic LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) storage. The monitoring was mainly focused on the operation of a drainage and recharge system. After the operation of the drainage system commenced, the drainage rate decreased rapidly in the initial stages and then decreased gradually. Hydrogeological monitoring revealed that the rock drainage system operated effectively. During drainage, the water table was maintained below the cavern roof. The recharge for ice-ring formation was performed in two phases. The first phase involved the cessation of pumping in downward-drainage holes and the second involved the closure of upward boreholes. Since the water table was maintained below the cavern roof, artificial recharge was planned at first. However, it was not implemented due to heavy rainfall in the recharge stage. On the basis of hydrogeological monitoring and hydraulic tests, it was found that the fractures above the roof and on the right wall of the pilot cavern mainly affected seepage into the cavern and thermal variation due to the storage of liquid nitrogen. Thermal variation was examined by the thermometers installed around the pilot cavern. The cooling and thawing processes reveal the characteristics of thermal distribution in the rock and the 0 °C isotherm. The cooling phase lasted for six months, and the 0 °C isotherm progressed in time after the injection of liquid nitrogen into the cavern. The isotherm propagated up to about 4 m from the floor and the sidewall of the cavern and about 3 m from the cavern roof. The cooling rate of the rock mass above the cavern roof was lower than that of the other cavern sides due to the gaseous space in the upper part of the containment. The fractures were analyzed and considered for thermal modeling. A two-dimensional finite element analysis was performed to compare the field monitoring at the pilot cavern. The numerical modeling shows the distance between the ice ring and heat transfer pattern of the fractures around the pilot cavern. The propagation of the measured and calculated 0 °C isotherm reveals that the water-conveying joint on the right wall might affect thermal propagation through a thermal pipe.     

结构面对程潮铁矿西区地表变形的影响分析

以程潮铁矿西区为例,通过对现场结构面和裂缝分布特征的调查,以及结合地表变形监测数据的分析,揭示了矿区结构面对地表变形的影响。研究结果表明,在矿区较大的水平应力条件下,岩体结构面改变了地表拉伸变形分布和破坏形态,加剧了岩体变形,在ⅰ区(剖面Ⅲ以东区域),目前最外侧裂缝以内的岩体沿着NNW结构面发生倾倒滑移破坏,地表变形以快速变形为主,而最外侧裂缝以外的岩体沿着NNW结构面发生弯曲变形,地表变形以线性稳定增长为主,进入了倾倒破坏阶段,该区域的岩体主要发生水平位移;在ⅱ区(剖面Ⅲ以西区域),岩体在开采沉陷引起的南北向应力作用下,分离成平行的块体,地表变形以快速变形为主,在局部区域,产生的一部分平行块体在近东西向的应力作用下,沿着NNW结构面产生倾倒破坏。所得成果对类似金属矿山的地表征地及安全高效生产具有实际指导意义。     

The Hattian Bala rock avalanche and associated landslides triggered by the Kashmir Earthquake of 8 October 2005

The Kashmir Earthquake of the 8 October killed an estimated 87 350 people, 25 500 through co-seismic landslides. The largest landslide associated with the earthquake was the 68 × 10⁶ m³ Hattian Bala rock avalanche that destroyed a village and killed around 1000 people. The deposit blocks the valley to a depth of 130 m impounding a lake that reached the dam-crest in April 2007. An outburst flood now threatens a major settlement 3 km downstream. A series of space images reveals landslide clusters in the rock avalanche source area prior to the earthquake. The images also reveal a large slow-moving landslide with its toe in the lake, failure of this landslide may induce dam failure through overtopping and scour. Eighty five landslides in the Hattian Bala catchment predate the shaking of 8 October 2005, a further 73 are co-seismic with the main shock, and 21 postdate it in the period up to October 2006. Landslide magnitude–frequency distribution plots derived from satellite images allow an assessment of the contribution of seismically triggered events as compared to background rates of activity.     

Landslide triggers along volcanic rock slopes in eastern Sicily (Italy)

A new dataset of landslides, occurred in a tectonically active region, has been analysed in order to understand the causes of the slope instability. The landslides we have dealt with took place along the volcanic rock cliff of S. Caterina and S. Maria La Scala villages (eastern Sicily, Italy), a densely inhabited area located on the eastern margin of Mt. Etna, where some seismogenic faults, locally named Timpe system, slip during moderate local earthquakes and also move with aseismic creep mechanisms. The results show that landslides are triggered by heavy rainfalls, earthquakes and creep fault episodes. Indeed, they occur along discrete fault segments, exhibiting a combination of both brittle failure, indicated by the earthquake occurrence, and aseismic creep events. The analysis of seismicity occurred on the Timpe fault system has shown that the active Acireale fault, in its southernmost segment, is subject to an aseismic sliding, which increases after the stick–slip motion in the nearby faults. Therefore, aseismic creep seems to concur in the predisposition of a rock to fail, since strains can increase the jointing of rock masses leading to a modification in the slope stability. Understanding the factors concurring to the slope instability is a useful tool for future assessments of the landslide hazard in densely settled areas, located on a volcanic edifice, such as Etna that is slowly sliding seawards, and where active faults, seismicity and heavy rains affect the deeply fractured slopes.     

连拱隧道围岩变形和破坏形态的DDA分析

连拱隧道围岩一般为由节理结构面相互切割的非连续岩体,利用非连续性分析方法研究这类围岩的变形和破坏形态可以更好地反映工程实际情况。采用非连续变形分析方法 DDA,对金鸡山连拱隧道围岩的变形和破坏过程进行了模拟,将整个变形破坏过程划分为了3个阶段：中墙上方岩体变形、地表下沉、滑移面产生阶段、隧道左右洞两侧滑移带（或滑移面）的形成阶段以及中墙顶部块体失稳、隧道上方岩体快速塌落阶段。研究了金鸡山隧道浅埋围岩和深埋围岩的变形破坏特征,其中边墙部位、靠近中墙的内侧拱顶或拱肩部位、外侧拱肩部位会首先受到变形破坏。     

Ferguson rock slide buries California State Highway near Yosemite National Park

During spring 2006, talus from the toe area of a rock-block slide of about 800,000 m³ buried California State Highway 140, one of the main routes into heavily-visited Yosemite National Park, USA. Closure of the highway for 92 days caused business losses of about 4.8 million USD. The rock slide, composed of slate and phyllite, moved slowly downslope from April to June 2006, creating a fresh head scarp with 9–12 m of displacement. Movement of the main rock slide, a re-activation of an older slide, was triggered by an exceptionally wet spring 2006, following a very wet spring 2005. As of autumn 2006, most of the main slide appeared to be at rest, although rocks occasionally continued to fall from steep, fractured rock masses at the toe area of the slide. Future behavior of the slide is difficult to predict, but possible scenarios range from continued scattered rock fall to complete rapid failure of the entire mass. Although unlikely except under very destabilizing circumstances, a worst-case, rapid failure of the entire rock slide could extend across the Merced River, damming the river and creating a reservoir. As a temporary measure, traffic has been rerouted to the opposite side of the Merced River at about the same elevation as the buried section of Highway 140. A state-of-the-art monitoring system has been installed to detect movement in the steep talus slope, movement of the main slide mass, local strong ground motion from regional earthquakes, and sudden changes in stream levels, possibly indicating damming of the river by slide material.     

敦煌莫高窟北区岩体变异变形及修复对策

敦煌莫高窟北区岩体长期以来在特殊的地形地貌、气象水文、岩土性质、地质构造条件下,受人工开挖、重力、风蚀、雨蚀和洪水冲刷等共同作用,岩体发生风化、卸荷等变异以及崩塌、坍塌和危岩、开裂与裂隙(构造裂隙、卸荷裂隙)等多种变形,严重影响岩体的稳定和洞窟的安全。针对上述变异、变形破坏情况,采用PS材料加粉煤灰浆液灌浆封闭裂隙和岩面喷浆加固相结合的修复方法,有效地防止了岩体变异的进一步扩展和表面风化的加剧,减少了岩体变形和表面风化程度,使石窟得以保护和修复。该方法对黄土及干旱地区石窟保护具有良好的借鉴作用。     

Granite fracture index to check suitability of granite outcrops for quarrying

A correct knowledge of fracture patterns previous to quarrying is important for economical exploitation. This work comprises the general characterization of the discontinuities of 10 granite rock masses in NE Portugal. During the study some discontinuity characteristics such as orientation, persistence, aperture, trace length and spacing were evaluated. The differences in the characteristics of the selected granites were described, and the most important exploration factors were identified. In the granites studied, most of the joints are oriented from N10°E to N50°E, which is compatible with the regional fracture pattern. Concerning joint termination, the XX type is common, while the RR type is rare; the persistence index ranges from 3.5% to 25.4%. Closed joints are predominant in the granites studied (> 72.4%), and openings of the others are about 1–2 mm as a result of superficial displacement of the granite blocks. The percentage of filled joints, usually by quartz and pegmatite, is different from one granite to another, but most are < 20%. The average joint length ranges from 11.1 m in post-tectonics granites to 4.6 m in syntectonic granites. Joint spacing varies from 0.98 to 2.8 m with higher values in post-tectonic granites. Joint-space distributions of the granites studied are close to log-normal and exponential distributions. Volumetric joint count (Jv) ranges from 0.8 to 2.1 joints/m³ and is used for categorizing the places of each granite. The relationships between Jv and other joint characteristics, such as length, spacing and number of joint sets, were investigated. A Granite Fracturing Index (GFI) is introduced, computed on the basis of volumetric joint count, number of joint sets and true joint spacing. The GFI classification of studied places allows us evaluate the suitability for profitable exploitation.     

崖腔型悬崖的稳定性估算

崖腔型悬崖破坏,是一种崩塌地质灾害,对线路工程与居住环境的安全性必须进行评估。假设张应力呈线性三角形分布,提出了一种评估崖腔型悬崖体稳定性的估算方法：首先计算张力矩,应用张力矩与压力矩相等的力矩平衡原理,计算出张力面上的总张力,然后按张力线性分布原理求出最大张应力。崖腔型悬崖的破坏是顶部最大张应力拉裂岩石而发生的。所以稳定系数定义为抗拉强度与最大张应力之比,用以评价崖腔型悬崖的稳定性。用算例讨论了影响崖腔型悬崖张应力大小的因素：悬崖体厚度H、岩石容重γ与崖腔深度L,分析了它们对不同厚度岩体与不同崖腔深度条件下最大张应力变化与破坏的一般变化规律,以及节理裂隙发育程度对岩体抗拉强度的影响,并提出了相关建议。算例表明本方法与悬臂梁的弹性力学解方法结果相差很大,证明弹性力学解对“深梁”型悬崖是不适用的。     

Geodetic constraints to the kinematics of the Kapareli fault, reactivated during the 1981, Gulf of Corinth earthquakes

Comparison of historical and of post-seismic triangulation data is used to model vertical crustal movements in the vicinity of the Kapareli Fault (or the Alkynonides earthquakes North Fault), one of the two antithetic normal faults which reactivated during the 1981, Gulf of Corinth (Ms = 6.7) earthquakes. This fault is characterized by a much smaller geomorphological signature than the South (or Perachora) fault of the same seismic sequence. Analysis of geodetic data on the basis of polynomial filtering and elastic dislocation modelling, as well as analysis of structural and coastal change data permits us to conclude that the upper bound in the uncertainty level of most of the available elevation changes is 20–30 cm, usually lower than the corresponding dislocation signal. In addition, the available geodetic data have a systematic pattern and are consistent with structural data. For this reason they permit more precise constraints on the geometry and the role of the Kapareli Fault (or the Alkyonides earthquakes North Fault): its total length is estimated about 17 km, about 50% longer than its surface trace; about 30–40 cm subsidence of its hanging wall, as well as at least 15 cm maximum uplift of its footwall is also inferred. This new evidence suggests that although in the long-term the Kapareli fault may represent a rather secondary, antithetic fault to the Alkyonides earthquakes South (Perachora) fault, during the 1981 earthquakes it probably had a more important structural role.