Sequence stratigraphic distribution of diagenetic alterations in coal-bearing, paralic sandstones: evidence from the Rio Bonito Formation (early Permian), southern Brazil

Abstract Linking siliciclastic diagenesis to sequence stratigraphy allows a better understanding of the parameters controlling the spatial and temporal distribution of diagenetic alterations, and hence of reservoir quality. A study of the coal-bearing, alluvial, deltaic, estuarine and shallow-marine sandstones of the Rio Bonito Formation, early Permian, Paraná Basin (southern Brazil), reveals that the distribution of diagenetic alterations and of related reservoir quality evolution can be constrained within a sequence stratigraphic framework. Calcite, dolomite, siderite, kaolinite and pyrite cementation is consistently linked to sequence and parasequence boundaries, transgressive and maximum flooding surfaces and is systematically distributed within lowstand, transgressive and highstand systems tracts. Diagenesis of coal layers at parasequence boundaries has promoted the formation of stratabound calcite (detectable in resistivity wire line logs), concretionary pyrite and kaolinite and of silicate grain dissolution in sandstones located above and below these boundaries, particularly in the transgressive systems tract. Meteoric water diagenesis caused grain dissolution and the formation of kaolinite in sandstones below sequence boundaries and in lowstand systems tract sandstones. Carbonate bioclasts and low sedimentation rates in lag deposits at parasequence boundaries, transgressive and maximum flooding surfaces favoured the formation of grain-rimming siderite. The results of this study are relevant to the exploration of coal-bed methane and other coal-bearing reservoirs, where it is crucial to unravel and predict the distribution and quality of reservoirs and compartments.     

东营凹陷沙河街组砂岩储层高岭石类型、特征及其成因

高岭石是东营凹陷沙河街组砂岩储层中常见的黏土矿物,对储层物性具有重要的影响,但目前对其特征及成因的研究较少。本文利用薄片分析、阴极发光、扫描电镜、X射线能谱等多种技术手段,结合东营凹陷构造演化、流体活动历史与成岩序列研究了东营凹陷高岭石的类型、特征及其成因。研究结果表明:东营凹陷沙河街组砂岩储层主要发育两类高岭石,第一类高岭石晶形发育良好,单偏光下呈鳞片-蠕虫状,扫描电镜下单晶呈假六方片状,晶体排列紧密,集合体呈蠕虫状或书页状,成分纯;第二类高岭石晶形发育不及第一期,单偏光下呈鳞片状,扫描电镜下可见晶层卷曲,晶体排列疏松,集合体呈手风琴状,其成分中除了Al、Si、O还含有少量Fe、Ca元素。高岭石主要为自生高岭石,是长石在有机质演化过程中产生的酸性流体作用下发生溶蚀作用的产物。但是,两类高岭石具有不同的形成时期、成因和形成环境,其中,第一类高岭石主要形成于东营末期,是沙四段上部烃源岩生烃和油气成藏时生成的有机酸溶蚀长石的产物;而第二类高岭石形成于馆陶期末和明化镇组大规模油气充注时期,此时,处于晚成岩A期,大量的蒙脱石向伊利石转化,酸性流体中含有较多的Fe2+、Ca2+等。     

Eogenetic diagenesis of Chinle sandstones,Petrified Forest National Park (Arizona,USA): A record of Late Triassic climate change

Fluvially derived tuffaceous Chinle sandstones from Petrified Forest National Park provide a well‐preserved Late Triassic archive of climate information. Petrographic analysis of 38 Chinle sandstones provides new insight into the depositional history and evolution of palaeoclimate during Chinle deposition. This study focuses on the relationship between climate and meteoric diagenesis as a guide for constraining climate change in western equatorial Pangea during the Late Triassic. Petrographic analysis of Chinle sandstones reveals their wide range of textural attributes, as well as pedogenic and shallow burial diagenetic features that occurred during the Late Triassic. These diverse petrological characteristics are indicative of the evolving Late Triassic climate, when placed into a well‐constrained stratigraphic and geochronological framework. The stratigraphic succession is characterized by variations in the abundance of framework grains, detrital matrix, weathering intensity of feldspar and volcanic rock fragments, and the mineralogy of clay cements. Climate records from Chinle palaeosol geochemistry indicate a progression from wet to dry conditions. This trend is also reflected in the meteoric diagenetic features of Chinle sandstones. During deposition of the lower Chinle, elevated rainfall promoted the weathering of labile volcanic detritus to kaolinite, whereas feldspars (especially plagioclase) were partially or completely dissolved. In the upper Chinle, a trend towards drier conditions favoured the formation of smectite and less feldspar dissolution resulting in a higher abundance of well‐preserved plagioclase grains. Shallow burial meteoric weathering reactions in Chinle sandstones reflect the evolving climate during the Late Triassic.     

Chlorite meniscus cement – implications for diagenetic mineral growth after oil emplacement

The possible influence on diagenesis of oil migration into reservoir sandstones is important for understanding their development. Although many studies have addressed the question of continued growth of diagenetic minerals after oil emplacement, there is little clear evidence of the timing of mineral growth relative to oil emplacement, nor of the possible mechanisms of continued mineral growth. This study presents an example of continued cementation by pore‐lining chlorite during and after the migration of oil into a Palaeocene turbidite sandstone reservoir near the Faroe Islands. Chlorite developed in two different textures. One texture occurs on framework grain surfaces adjacent to open pore space in contact with oil. The other texture occurs close to framework grain contacts where contact with oil appears to have been prevented by residual pore‐water menisci. The meniscus crystals are larger than those from open pore, implying that diagenetic clay mineral growth has continued after oil emplacement.     

东濮凹陷下第三系沙河街组砂岩的成岩背景及孔隙演化

作者以整体分析的思想方法,通过对成岩背景参数的选取、研究,揭示了东濮凹陷胡状集、文留两个地区不同构造环境中沙河街组砂岩各具特色的成岩作用与储层时空展布特征,研究结果表明,胡状集地区压实作用较弱,自生伊利石和铁白云石不发育,而高岭石发育,有利储层以原生孔隙为主且埋深较浅;而文留地区则压实作用强,铁白云石及沸石、石膏胶结发育,伊利石和绿泥石多见而缺乏高岭石,有利储层以次生孔隙为主且埋深较大。     

青海省大通矿区侏罗纪煤系地层中砂岩型高岭土矿床

矿区高岭土严格受岩性和地层层位控制。矿石含矿率高。质量好，矿物组成主要为高岭石和石英，其次有伊利石，高岭石为自形的假六方片状晶体，有序度高，晶体粒度细，伊利石多属边界圆滑的等度片状晶体。矿床的形成经历了原始的沉积阶段和成岩改造阶段，为“沉积改造”成因。     

Origins of authigenic minerals and their impacts on reservoir quality of tight sandstones: Upper Triassic Chang-7 Member,Yanchang Formation,Ordos Basin,China

Reservoir quality is critical for sweet-spot evaluation in tight sandstone plays, but few studies have focused on the origin of authigenic minerals in tight sandstones and their impact on reservoir quality. This study integrates petrographic analysis, carbon and oxygen isotopic data and mercury injection capillary pressure data of the Upper Triassic Chang-7 tight sand reservoir samples in the Ordos Basin, China to understand the origin of authigenic minerals and the impact of authigenic minerals on reservoir quality. Carbonate minerals, including calcite, ferroan calcite and dolomite, and kaolinite, are the major authigenic minerals in the Chang-7 sandstone. They were derived from the chemical diagenetic alteration of detrital feldspar and biotite, with the involvement of ions that are believed to be primarily from the connate water in interstitial pore space of the interbedded mudstones. Meteoric water and organic fluids from hydrocarbon generation may also have been involved in the alteration processes of the minerals in the Chang-7 tight sandstone. The origin of kaolinite indicates that the porosity was increased by dissolution of detrital grains, offsetting the porosity loss from burial compaction. Authigenic minerals appear to have a weak correlation with pore structure, suggesting that the pore structure of the Chang-7 tight sandstone is not only controlled by major authigenic minerals but also affected by other geological factors.     

苏北盆地黄桥地区富CO_2流体对二叠系龙潭组砂岩储层的改造与意义

富CO_2流体-砂岩相互作用是砂岩储层次生孔隙的重要形成机制。苏北黄桥地区作为中国重要的CO_2气产区,富CO_2流体对上二叠统龙潭组砂岩储层的改造问题备受关注。为揭示富CO_2流体的作用特征及其对储层的影响,对黄桥地区典型钻井开展了系统的岩心描述和岩矿鉴定,并进行了微区原位观测和相关地球化学分析。结果表明,在靠近CO_2流体活动强烈的断裂带部位(特别是断层上盘),砂岩中碳酸盐胶结物基本溶蚀殆尽,仅存少量交代成因菱铁矿,同时钾长石类碎屑溶蚀非常强烈,并伴随高岭石等矿物沉淀,以及石英次生加大,还发育片钠铝石等指示高浓度CO_2作用的特征矿物,形成与CO_2流体作用相关的特征矿物组合(片钠铝石+高岭石+次生石英+菱铁矿);而在远离断裂的部位,受CO_2流体影响较弱,溶蚀作用也较弱,有较多的次生方解石沉淀,形成了以方解石+菱铁矿为主的自生矿物组合。前者次生孔隙发育,后者则更加致密。据此提出了深源断裂主控下与富CO_2流体作用相关的储层发育模式,为油气勘探和开发提供了新的思路。     

Estuarine clay mineral distribution: Modern analogue for ancient sandstone reservoir quality prediction

The spatial distribution of clay minerals in sandstones, which may both enhance or degrade reservoir quality, is poorly understood. To address this, clay mineral distribution patterns and host‐sediment properties (grain size, sorting, clay fraction abundance and bioturbation intensity) have, for the first time, been determined and mapped at an unprecedentedly high‐resolution in a modern estuarine setting (Ravenglass Estuary, UK). Results show that the estuary sediment is dominated by illite with subordinate chlorite and kaolinite, although the rivers supply sediment with less illite and significantly more chlorite than found in the estuary. Fluvial‐supplied sediment has been locally diluted by sediment derived from glaciogenic drift deposits on the margins of the estuary. Detailed clay mineral maps and statistical analyses reveal that the estuary has a heterogeneous distribution of illite, chlorite and kaolinite. Chlorite is relatively most abundant on the northern foreshore and backshore and is concentrated in coarse‐grained inner estuary dunes and tidal bars. Illite is relatively most abundant (as well as being most crystalline and most Fe–Mg‐rich) in fine‐grained inner estuary and central basin mud and mixed flats. Kaolinite has the highest abundance in fluvial sediment and is relatively homogenous in tidally‐influenced environments. Clay mineral distribution patterns in the Ravenglass Estuary have been strongly influenced by sediment supply (residence time) and subsequently modified by hydrodynamic processes. There is no relationship between macro‐faunal bioturbation intensity and the abundance of chlorite, illite or kaolinite. Based on this modern‐analogue study, outer estuarine sediments are likely to be heavily quartz cemented in deeply‐buried (burial temperatures exceeding 80 to 100°C) sandstone reservoirs due to a paucity of clay grade material (<0·5%) to form complete grain coats. In contrast, chlorite‐enriched tidal bars and dunes in the inner estuary, with their well‐developed detrital clay coats, are likely to have quartz cement inhibiting authigenic clay coats in deeply‐buried sandstones.     

Kinetic Modeling of Diagenesis of Eogene Lacustrine Sandstone Reservoirs in the Jianghan Basin,Southeastern China

In the Tuoshi oilfield,located in the Cenozoic Jianghan Basin of southeastern China ,there have been found hydrocarbon reservoirs hosted in lacustrine sandstones of the Eogene Xingouzui Formation.The main diagenetic features identified in these sandstones include the dissolution of detrital K-feldspar and albite grains,the precipitation of quartz as overgrowths and /or cements ,and the precipitation and /or transformation of clay minerals.These diagenetic features were interpreted to have occurred in early,intermediate and late stages,based on the burial depth.The kinetics of fluid-mineral reactions and the concentrations of aqueous species au each stage of diagenesis were simulated numerically for these lacustrine sandstones,using a quasi-sta-tionary state approximation that incorporates simultaneous chemical reactions in a time-space continuum.During the early diagenetic stage,pore fluid was weakly acidic,which resulted in dissolution of K-feldspar and albite and,therefore,led to the release of K^ ,Na^ ,Al^3 and SiO2(aq) into the diagenetic fluid.The increased K^ ,Na^ ,Al^3 and SiO2(aq) concentrations in the diagenetic fluid caused the precipitation of quartz,kaolinite and illite.At the beginning of the intermediate diagenetic stage the concentration of H^ was built up due to the decomposition of organic matter,which was responsible for further dissolution of K-feldspar and albite and pre-cipitation of quartz,kaolinite,and illite.During the late diagenetic stage,the pore fluid was weakly alkaline,K-feldspar became stable and was precipitated with quartz and clay minerals.When the burial depth was greater than 3000 m,the pore fluids became supersaturated with respect to allbite,but undersaturated with respect to quartz,resulting in the precipitation of albite and the dissolution of quartz.The diagenetic reactions forecasted in the numerical modeling closely matched the diagenet-ic features identified by petrographic examination, and therefore,can help us to gain a better understanding of the diagenetic processes and associated porosity evolution in sandstone reservoirs.     

安徽淮北朔里煤矿硬质高岭土矿石特征及自然类型划分

朔里煤矿共生硬质高岭土矿赋存在下石盒子组底部的铝土泥岩中;其主要矿物为高岭石,次要矿物软水铝石,另有少量赤铁矿、金红石、锐钛矿等铁钛矿物;化学成分以Al2O3、SiO2为主,Fe2O3＋TiO2含量超过2％则不能圈定为矿体。朔里煤矿共生硬质高岭土矿共划分四种自然类型：①灰白-浅灰色高岭土矿,②深灰-灰黑色高岭土矿,③花斑状高岭土矿,④灰色含黄铁矿或少量鲕状菱铁矿高岭土矿。     

Platform-induced clay-mineral fractionation along a northern Tethyan basin-platform transect: implications for the interpretation of Early Cretaceous climate change (Late Hauterivian-Early Aptian)

High-resolution clay-mineral analyses were performed on upper Hauterivian to lower Aptian sediments along a platform-to-basin transect through the northern Tethyan margin from the Neuchâtel area (Switzerland), to the Vocontian Trough (France) in order to investigate links between climate change, carbonate platform evolution, and fractionation patterns in clay minerals during their transport.During the Hauterivian, the northern Tethyan carbonate platform developed in a heterozoan mode, and the associated ramp-like topography facilitated the export of detrital material into the adjacent basin, where clay-mineral assemblages are dominated by smectite and kaolinite is almost absent, thereby suggesting dry-seasonal conditions. During the Late Hauterivian Balearites balearis ammonite zone, a change to a more humid climate is documented by the appearance of kaolinite, which reaches up to 30% of the clay fraction in sediments in the Vocontian Trough. This prominent change just preceded the Faraoni Oceanic Anoxic Event and the onset of the demise of the Helvetic Carbonate Platform, which lasted to the late early Barremian.From the Late Barremian onwards, the renewed growth of the northern Tethyan carbonate platform in a photozoan mode and the associated development of a marginally confined platform topography fractionated the clay-mineral assemblages exported into hemipelagic settings: kaolinite particles were preferentially retained in proximal, platform settings, due to their size and their relatively high specific weight. In the inner platform environment preserved in the Swiss Jura, an average of 32% of kaolinite in the clay fraction is observed during the latest Barremian–earliest Aptian, whereas clay-mineral assemblages of coeval sediments from deeper depositional settings are dominated by smectite and show only minor amounts of kaolinite.This signifies that besides palaeoclimate conditions, the morphology and ecology of the carbonate platform had a significant effect on the distribution and composition of clay assemblages during the Late Hauterivian–Early Aptian along the northern Tethyan margin.     

东营凹陷碎屑岩储层长石溶蚀、Al迁移富集特征

成岩作用过程中骨架颗粒长石的溶蚀淋滤是碎屑岩储层形成次生孔隙的重要作用。长石在溶蚀反应中Al元素的活动性最低,只有在流体动力较强的条件下Al才发生迁移作用,长石溶蚀反应中高岭石的形成与分布受控于Al的迁移富集能力。因此研究成岩元素Al在流体中迁移富集特征对于储层评价具有重要意义。运用铸体薄片、扫描电镜以及粉晶衍射等分析测试技术,对东营凹陷碎屑岩储层的成岩特征进行了研究,结果在镜下可见研究区长石溶蚀以及Al的迁移富集特征明显。通过斜长石溶蚀形成高岭石的化学反应方程式,对比反应前后斜长石含量的变化,对河140井2 9213~2 9258 m深度段的砂岩进行了理论高岭石含量的计算。这种理论计算结果和实际形成高岭石含量曲线的差异,说明相对开放体系里长石溶蚀产物Al发生了微观的迁移富集作用。通过研究牛庄凹陷砂岩夹层中高岭石的含量分布特征,发现在砂泥岩界面靠近砂体一侧出现高岭石的富集,说明长石溶蚀产物Al在一定的流体动力条件下发生了迁移富集。研究区储层中长石溶解后形成高岭石,且其分布基本上受流体活动活跃的砂/泥岩界面位置和岩石物性控制。以钠长石和钾长石溶蚀形成高岭石和石英为例,对成岩反应前后岩石的体积变化进行了理论计算,结果表明如果长石溶解产物Al没有发生较大尺度的迁移,那么长石溶蚀后几乎相等体积的次生矿物将会沉淀充填孔隙。对于碎屑岩储层,次生孔隙发育的岩相学特征只能说明砂岩骨架颗粒发生了溶蚀作用、引起了孔隙重新分布、增加了砂体的非均质性,不足以说明砂岩孔隙度是否会真正提高。同时高岭石含量不能作为有效次生孔隙发育的标志,只有在Al发生迁移净输出之后,才能真正提高储集层的物性。     

The roles of pedogenesis and diagenesis in clay mineral assemblages: Lower Cretaceous fluvial mudrocks,Nova Scotia,Canada

Clay mineral assemblages in alluvial mudrocks are important for paleoclimatic interpretation and for understanding burial diagenetic cementation in sandstones, but it is commonly difficult to unravel the relative importance of source weathering, pedogenesis and diagenesis in their origin. The clay mineral assemblages in fluvial overbank mudrocks from the Lower Cretaceous Chaswood Formation in central Nova Scotia, investigated by X-ray diffraction analysis of the < 2 µm fraction of 45 samples, include kaolinite, illite, vermiculite, and mixed layer kaolinite/expandable clay and mica/vermiculite. The assemblages vary with depositional facies. Wetland organic-rich mudrocks have large amounts of amorphous material and kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral. In the eastern part of the basin, where overbank mudrocks were episodically uplifted by syn-sedimentary strike-slip faulting, cumulate ultisol and alfisol paleosols are common. In the ultisols, hematite is enriched and kaolinite increases at the expense of illite in the B horizon. Alfisols contain more illite and vermiculite and the B horizon is enriched in goethite. In the western part of the basin, where thin sandstones with abundant diagenetic kaolinite cement are interbedded with the mudrocks, the distinctive clay mineral assemblage of mica/vermiculite mixed layer, vermiculite with 15.5 Å peak, and kaolinite/expandable mixed layer clay with a 17.7 Å peak is interpreted to result from bacterially-mediated oxidation of organic matter below the paleo-water table during early burial diagenesis. Deeper burial diagenesis may lead to slightly higher kaolinite crystallinity. Volcanic ash appears to alter to kaolinite/expandable mixed layer clay with a 7.9 Å peak. Comparison with the continuously subsiding and rapidly accumulated Wessex Formation of southern England, formed at a similar paleolatitude, shows the strong role of pedogenic processes and early diagenesis by meteoric water in development of clay mineral assemblages in the locally tectonically uplifted Chaswood Formation.     

Palaeo‐climate controlled diagenesis of the Westphalian C & D fluvial sandstones in the Campine Basin (north‐east Belgium)

The Westphalian C and D fluvial sandstones in the Campine Basin (north‐east Belgium) are potential reservoirs for the sequestration of CO₂ and interesting analogues of the hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Southern North Sea. Although these sandstones were deposited in a relatively short period of time, their reservoir properties and mineralogical compositions are very different. A petrographic study complemented with stable isotope analyses, fluid inclusion microthermometry and X‐ray diffraction analyses of the clay fractions of the sandstones, which were sampled from deep boreholes (>1000 m) in the Campine Basin, revealed that these differences are related mainly to the climate at the time of deposition. The most important eogenetic processes affecting the Westphalian sandstones were the generation of a pseudomatrix by physical compaction of Al‐silicates and lithic fragments that were strongly altered by extensive meteoric leaching, kaolinitization of unstable silicates and precipitation of siderite. These processes had a detrimental influence on the reservoir properties of Westphalian C sandstones, but their impact on the Westphalian D sandstones was minimal. The difference is assumed to be related to the climate at the time of deposition, which changed from tropical humid in the Westphalian C to semi‐arid/arid during the Late Westphalian D. Both the Westphalian C and D sandstones were affected by similar mesogenetic processes. Mesogenetic quartz cementation resulted from chemical compaction and illitization of kaolinite, K‐feldspar and smectitic clays. Illitization of kaolinite was controlled by the available quantities of co‐existing kaolinite and K‐feldspar and mainly affected the Westphalian D sandstones. Illitization of K‐feldspar was controlled by the K‐feldspar content. It had a much larger impact on the reservoir properties of the Westphalian D as, in these sandstones, K‐feldspar was less affected by eogenetic alteration. The illitization of smectitic clays resulted in illite, quartz and ankerite cementation in both reservoirs. This process had a more important impact on the Westphalian C reservoir, since cementation here also resulted from smectite to illite conversion in the interbedded and underlying shales. The effect of mesogenetic alterations on the reservoir properties was much less drastic than the impact of eodiagenesis. Mesogenetic alterations do exert a significant control on the properties of the Westphalian D. The vast impact of eodiagenesis on the Westphalian C sandstones made them less susceptible to mesogenetic alteration. The effect of telogenetic processes on the porosity and permeability of the Westphalian sandstones was small and restricted to the top reservoir intervals that directly underlie the Cimmerian Unconformity. No significant telogenetic alterations related to the Variscan Unconformity were observed.     

Characterization of dehydration-induced luminescence of kaolinite

Dehydration-induced luminescence (DIL), the emission of light from a clay paste upon dehydration, was characterized experimentally for a colloidal kaolinite. The relationship between total photon count of the emitted light and film thickness is linear up to a thickness of 30 micrometers. The photon emission was obtained over a critical range of water contents (25-60%) of the oven-dry clay, and the kinetics of photon emission was presumed to be closely associated with the kinetics of film dehydration. Whether drying proceeded throughout the bulk or via a moving front was undetermined, but in either mode it was preceded by the formation of a thin dry film at the interface with the atmosphere. Grinding of the kaolinite for several minutes by mortar and pestle before paste preparations resulted in an overall increase of photon emission compared to unground kaolinite and in the formation of more than one emission peak, as well as a prolongation of the light emission. This effect on the kinetics of light emittance was observed for about two months after the application of the mechanical stress and suggests a means of detecting the mechanical stress history of a clay. An estimate was made of the spectral characteristics of the emitted light using optical filters and by incorporating tryptophan and salicylic acid into the kaolinite paste where they acted as fluorescent probes. The latter technique shifted the frequency of the light emitted by the kaolinite from the ultraviolet to the visible range where it was less effectively reabsorbed. The first method showed that the wavelengths of 97% of the emitted light was <460 nm and that 75% of the light had wavelengths < 410 nm. The second method showed that the total intensity of DIL increased in the presence of fluorescence molecules, suggesting that the emittance was in the ultraviolet range.     

Fluid infiltration associated with seismic faulting: Examining chemical and mineralogical compositions of fault rocks from the active Chelungpu fault

In order to understand the fault zone architecture and mechanisms that caused the Chi-Chi earthquake, the Chelungpu drilling project was conducted during April 2000 through a collaborative project between Japan and Taiwan. In this study, chemical and mineralogical variations within the overall Chelungpu fault zone, including variations between less damaged host rocks, damaged zones, and fault cores caused by the Chi-Chi earthquake were examined. Slopes of TiO₂ immobile isocons were consistently > 1 for analyses comparing host rocks with rocks from damaged zones or with gouges from fault cores, indicating that volume loss occurred in damaged zones and the fault cores. These results strongly imply that pervasive fluid infiltration occurred within the fault zone. Volume loss within the damaged zone and fault core is interpreted to result from a two-stage process involving: (i) coseismic mechanical wearing and/or dissolution in the fault core, and (ii) fluid infiltration within the fault zone during postseismic and interseismic periods along cracks caused by seismic failure. Semi-quantitative XRD analysis indicates that the kaolinite content consistently increases from the less damaged host rocks to the damaged zone and gouges in each fault core. Mineralogic changes indicate that pervasive acidic fluid infiltration occurred within the fault zones and reacted with the feldspars or muscovite to form kaolinite. Enrichment of kaolinite and illite found in the fault zones of southern drilling site could play some role on the slipping behavior of the southern part of the Chelungpu fault. Greater volume loss in the fault core may have resulted from moderate permeability, combined with the very fine grain nature of pulverized material in the fault core, which enhanced chemical reactions including transformation of feldspars and muscovite to clay minerals. The study results indicate that pervasive fluid infiltration occurred and changed the mineralogical and chemical architecture of fault zones caused by the cyclic earthquakes.     

Analysis of soil drying incorporating a constitutive model for curling

This paper focuses on the shrinkage behavior of soil specimens involving sand, kaolinite, and kaolinite/sand mixtures subjected to desiccation under controlled conditions. Both, free and restrained shrinkage conditions are studied. The experiments show that pure soils do not curl upon unrestrained shrinkage; however, (under the same conditions) kaolinite/sand mixtures exhibited a marked curling. Furthermore, the mixture with the higher sand content broke through the middle of the sample after displaying a significant curling. Soils subjected to restricted shrinkage developed cracks with slight curling. To simulate the observed behavior, a mechanical model able to reproduce the detachment of the soil sample from the mold is proposed in this work and implemented in a fully coupled hydro-mechanical finite-element code. It is concluded that suction and differential shrinkage are key factors influencing the curling behavior of soils. The proposed framework was able to satisfactorily explain and reproduce the different stages and features of soil behavior observed in the experiments.

     

Using magnetic resonance imaging for experimental analysis of fine‐sediment infiltration into gravel beds

Sedimentologists recognize that development of a fine‐resolution, truly three‐dimensional analytical tool is essential if the internal structure of an opaque material is to be examined. This paper therefore seeks to: (i) test the viability of magnetic resonance imaging for sedimentological research; and (ii) investigate fine‐sediment infiltration into gravel beds. The results of six experiments are analysed quantitatively using Image J post‐processing software. Data indicate that magnetic resonance imaging‐based measurements of particle axes and volumes are comparable with standard laboratory techniques. Furthermore, the technique permits visualization and analysis of differences in the pattern of fine‐sediment infiltration (median particle diameter, d) into a framework of gravel (median particle diameter, D). Data clearly illustrate a siltation process for samples of D/d = 34 and a sealing process for samples of D/d = 7 where the seal is restricted to a depth equal to 2D. This pore‐scale visualization is valuable to the understanding of hydraulic–sediment–habitat interactions.     

Diagenesis in the Middle Jurassic Khatatba Formation sandstones in the Shoushan Basin,northern Western Desert,Egypt

The Middle Jurassic Khatatba Formation acts as a hydrocarbon reservoir in the subsurface in the Western Desert, Egypt. This study, which is based on core samples from two exploration boreholes, describes the lithological and diagenetic characteristics of the Khatatba Formation sandstones. The sandstones are fine‐ to coarse‐grained, moderately to well‐sorted quartz arenites, deposited in fluvial channels and in a shallow‐marine setting. Diagenetic components include mechanical and chemical compaction, cementation (calcite, clay minerals, quartz overgrowths, and a minor amount of pyrite), and dissolution of calcite cements and feldspar grains. The widespread occurrence of an early calcite cement suggests that the Khatatba sandstones lost a significant amount of primary porosity at an early stage of its diagenetic history. In addition to calcite, several different cements including kaolinite and syntaxial quartz overgrowth occur as pore‐filling and pore‐lining cements. Kaolinite (largely vermicular) fills pore spaces and causes reduction in the permeability of the reservoir. Based on framework grain–cement relationships, precipitation of the early calcite cement was either accompanied by or followed the development of part of the pore‐lining and pore‐filling cements. Secondary porosity development occurred due to partial to complete dissolution of early calcite cements and feldspar. Late kaolinite clay cement occurs due to dissolved feldspar and has an impact on the reservoir quality of the Khatatba sandstones. Open hydraulic fractures also generated significant secondary porosity in sandstone reservoirs, where both fractures and dissolution took place in multiple phases during late diagenetic stages. The diagenesis and sedimentary facies help control the reservoir quality of the Khatatba sandstones. Fluvial channel sandstones have the highest porosities and permeabilities, in part because of calcite cementation, which inhibited authigenic clays or was later dissolved, creating intergranular secondary porosity. Fluvial crevasse‐splay and marine sandstones have the lowest reservoir quality because of an abundance of depositional kaolinite matrix and pervasive, shallow‐burial calcite and quartz overgrowth cements, respectively. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.