The influence of elevation, shrub species, and biological soil crust on fertile islands in the Mojave Desert, USA

We quantified soil nutrients and biological crust cover (bryophytes and lichens) under the canopies of three species of Mojave Desert shrubs and in interspaces between shrubs at three elevations to determine the effects of shrub species, soil crust, and elevation on islands of soil fertility. Means of pH, organic matter, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrogen mineralization, and gravimetric soil moisture are significantly greater in soils under Ambrosia dumosa (Gray) Payne, Larrea tridentata Cov., and Coleogyne ramosissima Torr. than soils from adjacent interspace microhabitats. Although soil moisture and soil organic matter increase by a factor of 1.5 from the low elevation to the high elevation site, the ratio of shrub to interspace concentrations, or the difference in mean soil variables between shrubs and interspaces, is effectively constant and independent of elevation. Total bryophyte and lichen cover is relatively low (24.5%), however, there are 11 species of bryophytes and two species of lichens distributed across three elevations with the highest species richness and cover at the low-elevation site. Bryophyte and lichen cover is correlated with silt but is not related, consistently, to soil nutrients. Overall, the balance of processes controlling spatial aggregation of soil nutrients under shrubs is remarkably insensitive to potential differences in organic inputs among elevations, shrub species, and soil crust surfaces.     

以数码照相法估算生物土壤结皮盖度

生物土壤结皮(BSC)是由藻类、地衣、苔藓和土壤中微生物形成的一类有机复合体,是干旱荒漠地区主要的地表覆被类型。由于藻、地衣和苔藓呈非连续性斑块状分布,准确估算它们的盖度比较困难。传统的估算方法主要是样方法和遥感影像法,样方法在野外操作中虽然比较精确但是费时,遥感影像法虽然快速但是误差大。本文试图通过数码照相法获取BSC地表分布信息,然后利用最大似然监督分类法对苔藓结皮、地衣结皮和藻结皮盖度进行分类计算,并用野外原位调查进行验证。结果表明,本文采用的照相法与传统样方法的相关性达到了94.45%,照相法可以有效地用于BSC盖度的估算,提高了盖度估算的效率。     

Seed dispersal by domestic goats in a semiarid thornscrub of Mexico

Previous studies conducted in the semiarid thornscrub of the Biosphere Reserve of Tehuacán-Cuicatlán have reported a high consumption of cactus and legume fruits by domestic goats. To test the hypothesis that goats may effectively disperse seed, we collected domestic goat feces from different microhabitats (bare ground, under shrub or under tree). The area occupied by each microhabitat was measured in the field. We then quantified the presence of viable seeds in goat feces and their deposition in microhabitats suitable for seedling establishment. We collected 209 seeds and using a seed reference collection, we identified these as belonging to three endemic cactus species, two legumes and several unidentified species. A high proportion of the cactus seeds germinated. Although most of the feces were found in open areas, more than 30% were recorded beneath the canopies of perennial plants, a suitable microhabitat for seedling establishment and survival. Contrary to the general assumption that goats cause only degradation of vegetation, these findings show that goats can effectively disperse viable seeds of diverse species. Studies that evaluate the ecological role of goats as important elements of biotic interactions are needed in order to generate an adequate management program for livestock.     

腾格里沙漠固定沙丘结皮层藓类植物的生态功能及与土壤环境因子的关系

通过1998-2001年的野外调查,沙坡头地区固定沙丘结皮层藓类植物共3科、11属、24种,新发现 8 个本地区新记录种。人工固定沙丘仅分布有7种藓类,而自然固定沙丘包括了所有的 24 种藓类,具有较高的物种多样性,构成了复杂的苔藓植物群落。沿坡向随高度的上升,藓类植物的盖度减少,而藻类植物的盖度却有上升的趋势。自然固定沙丘藓类植物盖度明显小于围封的人工固定沙丘。人工固定沙丘随着固定年限的增加,藓类植物的生物量明显增高,不同种类藓类植物的生物量明显不同,综合盖度因素,真藓拥有该地区最大的生物量。不同类型、不同种类的藓类植物结皮厚度和株高之间都存在显著的相关性(P < 0.01)。不同固定沙丘藓类结皮土壤的总盐量、阴、阳离子总量都明显高于藻结皮和流沙,苔藓结皮中苔藓植物体内Mg/Ca率在0.50~0.98之间,结皮土壤Ca²⁺含量明显高于其他3种离子,Na⁺、K⁺离子含量较少。苔藓植物生物量与土壤磷、土壤有机质呈明显正相关(P < 0.05),土壤pH值与土壤磷含量和苔藓植物生物量呈显著负相关(P 分别为 < 0.01 和 < 0.05),表明高的 pH值显著影响土壤磷含量和植物生物量。藓类结皮土壤中的有机质、全磷、全氮、速磷、速氮含量显著高于藻结皮的含量,尤其是有机质含量,藓类结皮都超过了1%的水平,在有机质含量普遍低于1%的沙区,对维持沙丘的稳定,促进维管植物的定居和繁殖起着极其重要的作用。     

A natural hybrid population betweenNeobuxbaumia tetetzoandCephalocereus columna-trajani(Cactaceae)

A supposed hybrid population betweenNeobuxbaumia tetetzoandCephalocereus columna-trajani(Cactaceae) in a semi-arid ecosystem at Zapotitlán de La Salinas, in the Mexican State of Puebla, was investigated by analysing number of ribs, number of areoles per cm and number of branches. Tests for equality of means using the Games and Howell method and Stepwise Discriminant Analysis, indicated that the number of ribs and number of areoles per cm supported our hypothesis for the existence of these naturally occurring hybrids, which are intermediate and distinct from the parental species. Other qualitative characteristics which distinguished hybrids and parental species are highlighted, and the possible meaning of the phenomenon is discussed.     

Carbon and nitrogen fixation differ between successional stages of biological soil crusts in the Colorado Plateau and Chihuahuan Desert

Biological soil crusts (cyanobacteria, mosses and lichens collectively) perform essential ecosystem services, including carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) fixation. Climate and land-use change are converting later successional soil crusts to early successional soil crusts with lower C and N fixation rates. To quantify the effect of such conversions on C and N dynamics in desert ecosystems we seasonally measured diurnal fixation rates in different biological soil crusts. We classified plots on the Colorado Plateau (Canyonlands) and Chihuahuan Desert (Jornada) as early (Microcoleus) or later successional (Nostoc/Scytonema or Placidium/Collema) and measured photosynthesis (P_n), nitrogenase activity (NA), and chlorophyll fluorescence (F_v/F_m) on metabolically active (moist) soil crusts. Later successional crusts typically had greater P_n, averaging 1.2–1.3-fold higher daily C fixation in Canyonlands and 2.4–2.8-fold higher in the Jornada. Later successional crusts also had greater NA, averaging 1.3–7.5-fold higher daily N fixation in Canyonlands and 1.3–25.0-fold higher in the Jornada. Mean daily F_v/F_m was also greater in later successional Canyonlands crusts during winter, and Jornada crusts during all seasons except summer. Together these findings indicate conversion of soil crusts back to early successional stages results in large reductions of C and N inputs into these ecosystems.     

Factors affecting the distribution, abundance and seedling survival of Mammillaria gaumeri , an endemic cactus of coastal Yucatán, México

The population status of an endemic cactus (Mammillaria gaumeri) was assessed in coastal Yucatán, México. Similar numbers of mature plants were found in open and full sun microhabitats. Plants in full sun had more ramets and were of larger diameter. There was a correlation between M. gaumeri abundance and the biomass of a disturbance indicator, Myrmecophila tibicinis (Orchidacea). Higher seedling survival in shade microhabitats and aggregated distribution of adults suggests that shrubs serve as nurse plants. Initial mortality rates of seedlings were many times higher in full sun microhabitats than in shade conditions. Herbivory had no effect on seedling survival.     

荒漠蓝藻规模化培养试验

以人工生物土壤结皮治理沙化土地技术是近年来新兴的绿色环保固沙技术,是目前沙区生态恢复研究的热点。然而,用于人工生物土壤结皮培养的荒漠蓝藻等生物体的产量是限制该技术大规模应用的瓶颈。为阐明荒漠蓝藻规模化培养的生长特征及其限制因子,以分离于腾格里沙漠蓝藻结皮中的优势荒漠蓝藻——鱼腥藻（Anabaena cylindrica）、具鞘微鞘藻（Microcoleus vaginatus）、念珠藻（Nostoc carneum）、席藻（Phormidium sp. NIES-2121）、伪枝藻（Scytonema sp. NIES-4073）、爪哇伪枝藻（Scytonema javanicum）和单歧藻（Tolypothrix tenuis）为研究对象,测定了不同扰动时长下荒漠蓝藻的生长特征和产量,分析了荒漠蓝藻的生长与扰动时长、温度、光照强度、光合有效辐射、pH和电导率对荒漠蓝藻的影响。结果显示：荒漠蓝藻接种后干重先迅速增加后逐渐趋于稳定,而6 h和12 h扰动下干重在培养后期高于3 h扰动;荒漠蓝藻在3、6、12 h扰动下的总质量分别为每培养池（15 m³）0.858、0.940、0.841 kg;在3 h和12 h扰动下荒漠蓝藻干重与日均温度呈显著二项式相关,与日均光照强度和日均光合有效辐射呈显著负相关;荒漠蓝藻总质量与有效积温显著正相关。6 h扰动时长下荒漠蓝藻的总质量最高,且6 h扰动下荒漠蓝藻长势好于3 h,较12 h扰动耗能小。在荒漠蓝藻规模化培养时应将扰动时长设置为6 h,且确保生长期内的有效积温应不低于145 ℃。     

Ecology and functional roles of biological soil crusts in semi-arid ecosystems of Spain

Biological soil crusts (BSCs), composed of lichens, cyanobacteria, mosses, liverworts and microorganisms, are key biotic components of arid and semi-arid ecosystems worldwide. Despite they are widespread in Spain, these organisms have been historically understudied in this country. This trend is beginning to change as a recent wave of research has been identifying BSCs as a model ecological system. Many studies and research projects carried out in Spain have explored the role of BSCs on water, carbon and nitrogen fluxes, the interactions between BSCs and vascular plants, their dynamics after disturbances, and their response to global change, among other topics. In this article we review the growing body of research on BSCs available from semi-arid areas of Spain, highlighting its importance for increasing our knowledge on this group of organisms. We also discuss how it is breaking new ground in emerging research areas on the ecology of BSCs, and how it can be use to guide management and restoration efforts. Finally, we provide directions for future research on the ecology of BSCs in Spain and abroad.     

Temporal dynamics and productivity of biogenic soil crusts in the central Karakum desert, Turkmenistan

Biogenic soil crusts (BSCs), consisting of different combinations of mosses, lichens, liverworts, fungi and cyanobacteria, are a widespread phenomenon in arid and semi-arid environments. BSCs are found throughout those areas unaffected by grazing and other anthropogenic activities. Current economic conditions in the newly Independent Central Asian States favor the development of BSCs, which may significantly influence plant communities. The data from 40-years of field observations in a protected area in the Karakum Desert, Turkmenistan, together with a sequence of aerial photographs of the same area may contribute to the study of the establishment of BSCs and understanding their role in vegetation communities. The fenced-off Karrykul area can serve as a model for the current processes in the vast desert areas in Central Asia, which are underused due to the financial constraints. It is hypothesized that after some 15 years, the role of BSCs changes from a positive (rehabilitating) effect on the first stages of protection, to a negative effect on the structure and biomass of vegetation communities. Therefore, undergrazing, as well as overgrazing, should be considered as a desertification factor.     

干扰对生物土壤结皮及其理化性质的影响

生物土壤结皮作为荒漠地区特殊环境的产物,具有较强的抗风蚀、水蚀功能,也是干旱荒漠地区植被演替的重要基础。随着人类活动的加剧,生物土壤结皮也受到不同类型和不同程度的干扰,主要包括放牧、火烧、车辆碾压等形式。干扰对生物土壤结皮的影响主要表现在生物土壤结皮结构及盖度的变化、土壤理化性质的改变、土壤微生物数量及活性的变化等几个方面。放牧对土壤物理性质的影响还没有一致的结论,除了干扰的程度还与土壤含水量有关系。火烧虽然改善了土壤结构,但是破坏了地表植被的盖度,而且恢复比较困难,也加速了外界侵蚀的力度,对土壤化学性质也有显著影响。机械碾压的破坏力最强,且没有任何的积极意义。     

Plant water relations of thornscrub shrub species, north-eastern Mexico

As an approach to understand how diurnal and seasonal plant water potentials (Ψ) are related to soil water-content and evaporative demand components, the responses of six thornscrub shrubs species (Havardia pallens, Acacia rigidula, Eysenhardtia texana, Diospyros texana, Randia rhagocarpa, and Bernardia myricaefolia) of the north-eastern region of Mexico to drought stress were investigated during the course of 1 year. All study species showed the typical diurnal pattern of variation in Ψ. That is, Ψ decreased gradually from predawn (Ψ_pd) maximal values to reach minima at midday (Ψ_md) and began to recover in the late afternoon. On a diurnal basis and with adequate soil water-content (>0.20 kg kg⁻¹), diurnal Ψ values differed among shrub species and were negatively and significantly (p<0.001) correlated with air temperature (r=−0.741 to −0.883) and vapor pressure deficit (r=−0.750 to −0.817); in contrast, a positive and significant (p<0.001) relationship was found to exist with relative humidity (r=0.758–0.842). On a seasonal basis, during the wettest period (soil water-content>0.20 kg kg⁻¹), higher Ψ_pd (−0.10 MPa) and Ψ_md (−1.16 MPa) values were observed in R. rhagocarpa, whereas lower figures (−0.26 and −2.73 MPa, respectively) were detected in A. rigidula. On the other hand, during the driest period (soil water-content<0.15 kg kg⁻¹), Ψ_pd and Ψ_md values were below −7.3 MPa; i.e. when shrubs species faced severe water deficit. Soil water-content at different soil layers, monthly mean relative humidity and monthly precipitation were significantly correlated with both Ψ_pd (r=0.538–0.953; p<0.01) and Ψ_md (r=0.431–0.906; p<0.05). Average soil water-content in the 0–50 cm soil depth profile explained between 70% and 87% of the variation in Ψ_pd. Results have shown that when gravimetric soil water-content values were above 0.15 kg kg⁻¹, Ψ_pd values were high and constant; below this threshold value, Ψ declined gradually. Among all shrub species, A. rigidula appeared to be the most drought tolerant of the six species since during dry periods it tends to sustain significantly higher Ψ_pd in relation to B. myricaefolia. The remaining species showed an intermediate pattern. It is concluded that the ability of shrub species to cope with drought stress depends on the pattern of water uptake and the extent to control water loss through the transpirational flux.     

Seed germination of five mountain steppe species of Central Asia

This paper presents data on the germination traits of five perennials (Allium polyrrhizum, Agropyron cristatum, Arenaria meyeri, Artemisia frigida and Artemisia santolinifolia) widespread in the mountain steppes of southern Mongolia. Germination and seed viability were assessed at three alternate temperatures (8/4 °C, 20/10 °C, 32/20 °C), three levels of osmotic stress (deionized water; −0.5 MPa, −1 MPa Mannitol solution), and under conditions of alternate light/darkness versus complete darkness. The results of a factorial ANOVA with treatments and species as main effects showed that all five species germinated best at higher temperatures, with only Agropyron cristatum showing some seed mortality. Osmotic stress reduced seed viability and total germination in all five species. Darkness had no influence on viability, but positively affected seed germination of Allium polyrrhizum and Agropyron cristatum. We therefore conclude that, in the field, germination of all five species is mainly controlled by ambient temperatures and water availability, both of which drop towards the end of summer when dispersal takes place and effectively delay seedling recruitment until the next vegetation period.     

生物土壤结皮对荒漠昆虫多样性的影响

生物土壤结皮广泛分布在干旱半干旱地区与寒区荒漠,是荒漠生态系统的主要组成和景观特征之一,其重要性已被大量的研究报道所证实。然而,关于生物土壤结皮与昆虫种类多样性之间关系的研究却很少。本文以腾格里沙漠东南缘的沙坡头地区半固定沙丘柠条－油蒿群落和固定沙丘柠条－油蒿群落为观测样地,选择具有不同类型生物土壤结皮分布的植被群落为观测样方。昆虫的调查采用100 m×100 m的样方,利用样筐和网捕法收集昆虫,记录昆虫数量,采集标本在室内进行鉴定。结果表明:与无结皮覆盖的植被区相比,生物土壤结皮在地表的覆盖显著地增加了昆虫的多样性和种的丰富度,其中以苔藓和地衣为主的结皮覆盖的植被样方中昆虫种的多样性和丰富度显著地高于以蓝藻和藻类为主的结皮样方。生物土壤结皮对荒漠昆虫多样性的贡献可能是由于稳定了土表、改善了植被系统中的土壤环境,为昆虫,特别是幼虫阶段提供相对适宜的土壤生境或部分食物来源。     

生物土壤结皮：荒漠昆虫食物链的重要构建者

干旱荒漠地区由于水分因子的限制,其植被分布以不连续的高等植物斑块与隐花植物及其结皮的斑块镶嵌为其主要特征,构成了独特的荒漠植被景观格局。作为荒漠生态系统的主要组成者,荒漠昆虫与生境的关系,特别是与高等植物之间的食物链关系已得到大量的文献报道。本文基于野外调查和实验室模拟观测,发现了尖尾东鳖甲(Anatolica mucronata)对藓类结皮有取食现象,哈蛃(Haslundichilis sp.)对地衣结皮有取食现象。证实了生物土壤结皮直接参与了荒漠昆虫食物链和食物网的构成,为深入了解生物土壤结皮在荒漠生态系统中的功能和地位提供了实验证据。     

Phenology ofMedicago minimaandErodium cicutariumin semi-arid Argentina

The phenology ofMedicago minimavar.minimaandErodium cicutariumwas studied at two different field sites in the Calden District (approx. 10 million ha), a temperate semi-arid phytogeographical region in central Argentina. One site had been protected from wild and domestic herbivores for the 6 previous years. The other adjacent site had been exposed to continuous grazing by cattle for several decades. A phenological key was made for each species in 1988, and this key was improved during the 1989 growing season when phenological observations were made every 1–3 weeks.The growth cycle ofM. minimaandE. cicutariumwas similar at the two studied sites. Initiation of the cycle occurred in autumn and appeared to be associated with soil water availability. Phenological patterns were very dynamic at the reproductive stage in both species. This stage started earlier and was faster inE. cicutariumthan inM. minima. The end of the growing season occurred during late spring, concomitant with high maximum air temperatures. Our results suggest that these species hasten their development when air temperature increases and soil water availability decreases. This could be an important strategy in these species which allows them to persist as seeds, and produce a new generation under favourable environmental conditions.     

土壤微生物结皮对两种一年生植物幼苗存活和生长的影响

在温室实验和野外调查中,分析了两种一年生草本植物小画眉草(Eragrostics poaeoides)和雾冰藜(Bassia dasyphylla)的幼苗在苔藓结皮、藻结皮和流沙上的存活和生长状况。两种植物的幼苗存活率均表现出在苔藓结皮上最高而在流沙基质中最低。两种植物幼苗存活率与土壤表层水分含量呈正相关关系。与小画眉草相比较,雾冰藜的幼苗在萌发后根生长较为迅速,在3种土壤类型中和干湿两种水分处理下,雾冰藜较小画眉草均具有较高的幼苗存活率。在干燥处理下,生长在有结皮土壤中的两种植物的植株干重大约是生长在无结皮土壤中植株的5倍。增加水分能降低植株幼苗的死亡率,促进植株生长;增加水分也能在一定程度上减弱因土壤基质差异对幼苗存活和幼苗生长的影响。因此,在自然状况下年降雨量的多少和分配状况的差异可能会影响这两种植物每年幼苗存活率和生长状况的差异,进而会影响到这两个种群在人工固沙区盖度和分布格局的差异性。     

两种荒漠蓝藻生长特征及其对培养水体微环境的影响

人工生物土壤结皮是近年来新兴的绿色环保固沙材料,是目前沙区生态恢复研究的前沿和热点,用于人工生物土壤结皮培养的荒漠蓝藻等生物体的产量是该技术大规模应用的限制因素。为了解荒漠蓝藻的生长特征及其影响因子,以分离于腾格里沙漠蓝藻结皮中的优势荒漠蓝藻——具鞘微鞘藻(Microcolus vaginatus)和念珠藻(Nostoc carneum)为对象,探索了实验室条件下接种密度对荒漠蓝藻生长和培养水体pH及电导率的影响。结果显示：随着接种密度的增加,具鞘微鞘藻和念珠藻生长进入稳定期的时间提前。在生长初期,具鞘微鞘藻在0.35、0.95 mg·L^-1密度下的干重显著高于2.13、6.59、13.42 mg·L^-1密度下的干重,生长后期则相反。在生长前期和后期,念珠藻在0.04～0.32 mg·L^-1密度下的干重和总质量均显著高于0.86～2.59 mg·L^-1密度下;具鞘微鞘藻在6.59～13.42 mg·L^-1密度下的总质量显著高于0.35～2.13 mg·L^-1     

准噶尔盆地古尔班通古特沙漠生物结皮蓝藻研究

通过对古尔班通古特沙漠中9个样地73份生物土壤结皮蓝藻的研究,分析该沙漠生物结皮中蓝藻的区系组成、生态分布特点和蓝藻在生物结皮中的作用机制。研究表明,该沙漠中有蓝藻门植物6科25属77种,其中以丝状种类占优势;蓝藻在不同地貌部位分布略有差异,在丘间低地种类最为丰富;不同种类的蓝藻对地貌部位的选择性不同,大部分对地貌部位具有选择性;蓝藻种类和数量在结皮层较多,在结皮下层明显减少。生物结皮的显微观察揭示了丝状蓝藻和胞外多糖形成错综复杂的网状结构,起着捆绑、黏结沙粒和固定沙粒的作用。     

Water requirements for germination and early seedling establishment in four African savanna woody plant species

The aim of this study was to determine the water requirements for germination and early seedling establishment of four African savanna tree species, namelyAcacia karroo, A. nilotica, A. tortilisandMundulea sericea. The acacias are characteristic of nutrient-rich, andM. sericeaof nutrient-poor savannas. Imbibition times of scarified seeds ofA. karroo(4 h),M. sericea(6 h) andA. tortilis(8 h) were rapid relative toA. nilotica(28 h) and were inversely correlated with seed size. Imbibed water is lost in about 2 h after drying at 25°C for all species exceptA. nilotica(only 70% moisture loss). Seeds ofA. karrooandM. sericeakept at 40°C dried to below their original moisture contents within 2 h. Seeds ofA. niloticaandA. tortilisdried at 40°C lost viability relative to (undried) control seeds, while there was no significant loss of viability forA. karrooandM. sericea. For fully imbibed seeds to germinate in sandy savanna soils, all four species required at least the equivalent of 3 mm rainfall every 2 days under mild greenhouse conditions. However, most ungerminated seeds were still viable despite drying-out from a fully imbibed state. Maintenance of soil at 50% field capacity (FC), or watering to FC every 9th day is the maintenance requirements for 2-week-old seedlings ofA. niloticaandM. sericeato continue growth for a further 5 weeks under greenhouse conditions, althoughA. niloticamostly survived 25% FC with one seedling surviving 12·5% FC. Root penetration was rapid in sandy soils, withA. niloticaandM. sericeaattaining a depth of 40 cm within 15 days. Frequent, but not necessarily high, rainfall appears to be essential for germination and seedling survival over the first 7 weeks.