<Emphasis Type="Italic">C</Emphasis>/<Emphasis Type="Italic">N</Emphasis><Subscript>0</Subscript> estimators for high-sensitivity snapshot GNSS receivers

We address the problem of estimating the carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N₀) in weak signal conditions. There are several environments, such as forested areas, indoor buildings and urban canyons, where high-sensitivity global navigation satellite system (HS-GNSS) receivers are expected to work under these reception conditions. The acquisition of weak signals from the satellites requires the use of post-detection integration (PDI) techniques to accumulate enough energy to detect them. However, due to the attenuation suffered by these signals, estimating their C/N₀ becomes a challenge. Measurements of C/N₀ are important in many applications of HS-GNSS receivers such as the determination of a detection threshold or the mitigation of near-far problems. For this reason, different techniques have been proposed in the literature to estimate the C/N₀, but they only work properly in the high C/N₀ region where the coherent integration is enough to acquire the satellites. We derive four C/N₀ estimators that are specially designed for HS-GNSS snapshot receivers and only use the output of a PDI technique to perform the estimation. We consider four PDI techniques, namely non-coherent PDI, non-quadratic non-coherent PDI, differential PDI and truncated generalized PDI and we obtain the corresponding C/N₀ estimator for each of them. Our performance analysis shows a significant advantage of the proposed estimators with respect to other C/N₀ estimators available in the literature in terms of estimation accuracy and computational resources.     

S<Subscript>2</Subscript> tide aliasing in GRACE time-variable gravity solutions

Errors in high-frequency ocean tide models alias to low frequencies in time-variable gravity solutions from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE). We conduct an observational study of apparent gravity changes at a period of 161 days, the alias period of errors in the S₂ semidiurnal solar tide. We examine this S₂ alias in the release 4 (RL04) reprocessed GRACE monthly gravity solutions for the period April 2002 to February 2008, and compare with that in release 1 (RL01) GRACE solutions. One of the major differences between RL04 and RL01 is the ocean tide model. In RL01, the alias is evident at high latitudes, near the Filchner-Ronne and Ross ice shelves in Antarctica, and regions surrounding Greenland and Hudson Bay. RL04 shows significantly lower alias amplitudes in many of these locations, reflecting improvements in the ocean tide model. However, RL04 shows continued alias contamination between the Ronne and Larson ice shelves, somewhat larger than in RL01, indicating a need for further tide model improvement in that region. For unknown reasons, the degree-2 zonal spherical harmonics (C₂₀) of the RL04 solutions show significantly larger S₂ aliasing errors than those from RL01.     

Estimation of parameters in a split functional model of geodetic observations (<Emphasis Type="Italic">M</Emphasis><Subscript>split</Subscript> estimation)

The paper presents a method of estimating parameters in two competitive functional models. The models considered here are concerned with the same observation set and are based on the assumption that an observation may result from a realization of either of two different random variables. These variables differ from one another at least in the main characteristic (for example, outliers can be realizations of one variable). A quantity that describes the opportunity of identifying a single observation with one random variable is assumed to be known. That quantity, called the elementary split potential, is strictly referred to the amount of information that an observation can provide about two competitive assumptions concerning the observation distribution. Parameter assessments that maximize the global elementary split potential (concerning all observations), are called M _split estimators. A generalization of M _split estimation presented in the paper refers to the theoretical foundation of M-estimation. An erratum to this article can be found at     

The geopotential value <Emphasis Type="Italic">W</Emphasis><Subscript>0</Subscript> for specifying the relativistic atomic time scale and a global vertical reference system

The TOPEX/Poseidon (T/P) satellite alti- meter mission marked a new era in determining the geopotential constant W ₀. On the basis of T/P data during 1993–2003 (cycles 11–414), long-term variations in W ₀ have been investigated. The rounded value W ₀ = 62636856.0 ± 0.5) m ² s ⁻² has already been adopted by the International Astronomical Union for the definition of the constant L _G = W ₀/c ² = 6.969290134 × 10⁻¹⁰ (where c is the speed of light), which is required for the realization of the relativistic atomic time scale. The constant L _G , based on the above value of W ₀, is also included in the 2003 International Earth Rotation and Reference Frames Service conventions. It has also been suggested that W ₀ is used to specify a global vertical reference system (GVRS). W ₀ ensures the consistency with the International Terrestrial Reference System, i.e. after adopting W ₀, along with the geocentric gravitational constant (GM), the Earth’s rotational velocity (ω) and the second zonal geopotential coefficient (J ₂) as primary constants (parameters), then the ellipsoidal parameters (a,α) can be computed and adopted as derived parameters. The scale of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame 2000 (ITRF2000) has also been specified with the use of W ₀ to be consistent with the geocentric coordinate time. As an example of using W ₀ for a GVRS realization, the geopotential difference between the adopted W ₀ and the geopotential at the Rimouski tide-gauge point, specifying the North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD88), has been estimated.     

Analysis of the Seasonal Variation of CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Concentration in China Based on GOSAT Satellite Data

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is one of the major gases that contribute to the global warming. Therefore, studying the distribution of CO₂ can help people understand the carbon cycle. Based on the GOSAT retrieved CO₂ products, the temporal and spatial distribution and seasonal variation of CO₂ concentration were analyzed from 2011 to 2015. CO₂ concentration has obvious seasonal variation. It was low in summer, and was high in spring, and the annual increase was about 2 ppm. Nevertheless, the annual growth rate of CO₂ concentration in summer was higher than that in spring, it was 0.5425% in summer and was 0.46% in spring. CO₂ concentration was low in the northwest and was high in the southeast. The growth rate of CO₂ was 2.8 ppm in the northwest and was 3.42 ppm in the southeast. More human’s activities made CO₂ concentration higher in the southeast than that in other regions.     

Seasonal and inter-annual variability of atmosphere CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> based on NOAA Carbon Tracker analysis and satellite observations

A study on seasonal and inter-annual variability of the atmospheric CO₂ is carried out based on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Carbon Tracker (NOAACT) re-analysis and satellite measurements of mid-troposphere CO₂ by Atmosphere Infrared Sounder on board NASA’s Aqua and lower troposphere CO₂ by Greenhouse-gas Observing Satellite. Seasonal and non-seasonal components of each time series were extracted by means of least square based harmonic analysis procedure. The data of surface CO₂ fluxes used in the NOAACT are also analyzed to examine its relationship with the atmosphere CO₂ variability at different time scales. There exists good consistency between NOAACT analysis and satellite observations in their respective seasonal harmonics and climatology. Surface layer CO₂ exhibits large climatological mean over the regions of major anthropogenic sources together with strong seasonal cycle over the humid and cold climatic terrestrial regions especially over the northern hemisphere. Existence of high coherency with the different components of the surface fluxes shows that surface layer atmosphere CO₂ seasonality is primarily contributed from the terrestrial ecosystem exchanges and secondarily by anthropogenic and oceanic exchanges. The mid-troposphere CO₂ exhibits large values associated with climatology and amplitudes of semi-annual and annual cycles over the northern extra tropics and Polar Regions along with a gradual decreasing trend from northern to southern hemisphere. Inter-annual variability of atmospheric CO₂ in the NOAACT in some extent is consistent with the satellite observations. Large scale circulation patterns, its fluctuations associated with ENSO events and large scale ecosystem disturbances have significant influence on the inter-annual variability.     

Validation of a Crop Yield and CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Fixation Model over Southeast Asia by Carbon Partitioning in Grain Plants

A photosynthetic-sterility model for grain production monitoring has been developed and validated under the background of climate change and Asian economic growth in developing countries. This paper presents an application of the model to evaluate carbon-fixation rates in yields of paddy rice, winter wheat, and maize in Asia. The validation of the model is based on carbon partitioning in grain plants. The carbon hydrate in grains has the same chemical formula as that of cellulose in grain vegetation. The partitioning of carbon in plants can validate fixation amounts of computed carbon using a satellite-based photosynthesis model. The model estimates the photosynthesis fixation of rice reasonably in Japan and China. Results were validated through examination of carbon in grains, but the model tends to underestimate results for winter wheat and maize. This study also provides daily distributions of the PSN, which is the CO₂ fixation in Asian areas combined with a land-cover distribution classified from MODIS data, NDVI from SPOT VEGETATION, and meteorological re-analysis data by European Centre for Medium-Range Forecasts (ECMWF). The mean CO₂ and carbon fixation rates in paddy areas were 25.92 (t CO₂/ha) and 5.28 (t C/ha) in Japan, respectively. Comparisons between the model’s values and MODIS seasonal PSNs show similar trends. The writers are preparing to compare computed photosynthesis rates with observed AsiaFlux data for the validation of this model at field sites of paddy, grassland and forests in Japan and Asian countries.     

Measurement and Scaling of Carbon Dioxide (CO<Subscript>2</Subscript>) Exchanges in Wheat Using Flux-Tower and Remote Sensing

The present study investigates the characteristics of CO₂ exchange (photosynthesis and respiration) over agricultural site dominated by wheat crop and their relationship with ecosystem parameters derived from MODIS. Eddy covariance measurement of CO₂ and H₂O exchanges was carried out at 10 Hz interval and fluxes of CO₂ were computed at half-hourly time steps. The net ecosystem exchange (NEE) was partitioned into gross primary productivity (GPP) and ecosystem respiration (R _e) by taking difference between day-time NEE and respiration. Time-series of daily reflectance and surface temperature products at varying resolution (250–1000 m) were used to derive ecosystem variables (EVI, NDVI, LST). Diurnal pattern in Net ecosystem exchange reveals negative NEE during day-time representing CO₂ uptake and positive during night as release of CO₂. The amplitude of the diurnal variation in NEE increased as LAI crop growth advances and reached its peak around the anthesis stage. The mid-day uptake during this stage was around 1.15 mg CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹ and night-time release was around 0.15 mg CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹. Linear and non-linear least square regression procedures were employed to develop phenomenological models and empirical fits between flux tower based GPP and NEE with satellite derived variables and environmental parameters. Enhanced vegetation index was found significantly related to both GPP and NEE. However, NDVI showed little less significant relationship with both GPP and NEE. Furthemore, temperature-greenness (TG) model combining scaled EVI and LST was parameterized to estimate daily GPP over dominantly wheat crop site. (R ² = 0.77). Multi-variate analysis shows that inclusion of LST or air temperature with EVI marginally improves variance explained in daily NEE and GPP.     

Quantifying FES2004 S<Subscript>2</Subscript> tidal model from multiple space-geodesy techniques,GPS and GRACE,over North West Australia

Unmodeled sub-daily ocean S₂ tide signals that alias into lower frequencies have been detected in the analysis of gravity recovery and climate experiment (GRACE) space gravity fields of GRGS. The most significant global S₂ aliased signal occurs off the northwest coast of Australia in a shallow continental shelf zone, a region with high tidal amplitudes at a period of 161 days. The GRACE S₂ aliased equivalent water height grids are convolved with Green’s functions to produce GRACE aliased tidal loading (GATL) vertical displacements. The analysis of hourly global positioning system (GPS) vertical coordinate estimates at permanent sites in the region confirms the presence of spectral power at the S₂ frequency when the same ocean tide model (FES2004) was used. Thus, deficiencies in the FES2004 ocean tide model are detected both directly and indirectly by the two independent space geodetic techniques. Through simulation, the admittance (ratio of amplitude of spurious long-wavelength output signal in the GRACE time-series to amplitude of unmodeled periodic signals) of the GRACE unmodeled S₂ tidal signals, aliased to a 161-day period, is found to have a global average close to 100%, although with substantial spatial variation. Comparing GATL with unmodeled S₂ tidal sub-daily signals in the vertical GPS time-series in the region of Broome in NW Australia suggests an admittance of 110–130%.     

Satellite and In Situ Observations of a Phytoplankton Bloom from Coastal Bay of Bengal: Role in pCO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Modulation

A phytoplankton bloom was monitored in coastal waters of Bay of Bengal and its influence in water column properties was investigated. Significant draw down of CO₂ was noted within the vicinity of the bloom associated with high chlorophyll biomass. Microscopic analysis revealed diatoms as the dominant population. Skeletonema costatum a diatom, reached cell density of 36,898 cells l^?1 within the bloom. The lowest surface pCO₂ observed was 287 µatm at the southern end of the transect covarying with surface chlorophyll of 1.090 µg l^?1. At the northern end the surface pCO₂ went as low as 313 µatm. The pCO₂ levels below the mixed layer increased twice of that of surface value (~600 µatm). The chlorophyll values observed by Ocean Colour Monitor-2 were modestly related with the in situ measurements. The primary productivity derived from growth rate, assimilation number and maximum surface chlorophyll was 160.6 mg C m^?2 day^?1 leading to a modest sequestration ~of 0.08 Gg of carbon per day by the surface waters. Our observations reflects the potential role of diatom blooms on coastal carbon dynamics therefore should be carefully monitored in realm of anthropogenic changes.     

Potential CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> Emission Due to Loss of Above Ground Biomass from the Indian Sundarban Mangroves During the Last Four Decades

Sundarban, the largest single patch of mangrove forest of the world is shared by Bangladesh (~ 60 %) and India (~ 40 %). Loss of mangrove biomass and subsequent potential emission of carbon dioxide is reported from different parts of the world. We estimated the loss of above ground mangrove biomass and subsequent potential emission of carbon dioxide in the Indian part of the Sundarban during the last four decades. The loss of mangrove area has been estimated with the help of remotely sensed data and potential emission of carbon dioxide has been evaluated with the help of published above ground biomass data of Indian Sundarban. Total loss of mangrove area was found to be 107 km² between the year 1975 and 2013. Amongst the total loss ~60 % was washed away in the water by erosion, ~ 23 % was converted into barren lands and the rest were anthropogenically transformed into other landforms. The potential carbon dioxide emission due to the degradation of above ground biomass was estimated to be 1567.98 ± 551.69 Gg during this period, which may account to 64.29 million $ in terms of the social cost of carbon. About three-forth of the total mangrove loss was found in the peripheral islands which are much more prone to erosion. Climate induced changes and anthropogenic land use change could be the major driving force behind this loss of ‘blue carbon’.     

基于改进的模糊c-均值聚类方法遥感影像分类研究(英文)

Classification is always the key point in the field of remote sensing. Fuzzy c-Means is a traditional clustering algorithm that has been widely used in fuzzy clustering. However, this algorithm usually has some weaknesses, such as the problems of falling into a local minimum, and it needs much time to accomplish the classification for a large number of data. In order to overcome these shortcomings and increase the classification accuracy, Gustafson-Kessel （GK） and Gath-Geva （GG） algorithms are proposed to improve the traditional FCM algorithm which adopts Euclidean distance norm in this paper. The experimental result shows that these two methods are able to detect clusters of varying shapes, sizes and densities which FCM cannot do. Moreover, they can improve the classification accuracy of remote sensing images.     

Edge enhancement for remote sensing image using norm algorithm in L2 vector space

The Householder transformation-norm structure function in L2 vector space of linear algebra is introduced, and the edge enhancement for remote sensing images is realized. The experiment result is compared with traditional Laplacian and Sobel edge enhancements and it shows that the effect of the new method is better than that of the traditional algorithms.     

遥感影像边缘增强的L2向量空间范数算法

采用线性代数L2向量空间Householder变换-Norm（范数）构造函数,实现了遥感影像的边缘增强.影像实验结果与传统的Laplacian和Sobel边缘增强进行比较表明,本算法的边缘增强效果要优于Laplacian和Sobel边缘增强,为遥感影像的边缘增强提供了一种新的手段.     

不受刀刃边缘倾角约束的遥感影像点扩散函数稳健计算方法

采用传统刀刃法提取PSF时,只有在刀刃边缘近似平行或垂直于采样方向情况下才能得到好的效果,这样限制了刀刃法提取PSF进行图像恢复的广泛应用。本文提出了一种稳健的基于倾斜刀刃的图像的PSF计算模型,不仅在提取理想刀刃状况下(与采样方向近似垂直或平行)与传统方法等价,而且对倾斜刀刃提取PSF进行图像恢复也能得到理想效果,所恢复的图像在峰值信噪比(PSNR),均方差测度(MSE)和信噪比(SNR)等方面,都要优于传统方法,利用任意倾角的刀刃边缘提取的PSF都可以基本达到理想刀刃所提取的PSF的效果,因而提高了刀刃法提取PSF进行图像恢复的鲁棒性和通用性。本文分别从理论和实践上论证了模型的有效性,并采用模拟实验数据和ADS40航空影像数据验证了方法的正确性。     

基于小波变换的图像边缘提取算法

在给出边缘检测性能判断标准和传统的模极大值点筛选的缺陷之后,基于边缘检测提出了改进的小波变换模局部极大值点算法。在这个基础之上,又针对交通系统的实时性,提出了一种改进的边缘信息的车辆检测算法,使得对运动车辆的边缘检测具有更加良好的效果。最后通过仿真实验,证明本论文提出方法的有效性,得到了多帧道路图像的边缘,较好地解决了传统边缘检测方法在边缘检测时会出现伪边缘和有意义边缘损失这两个问题,对将来车辆交通监控系统等方面的研究起到了一定的帮助作用。     

基于小波增强的改进多尺度形态梯度边缘检测算法

在形态学梯度边缘检测算子的基础上，综合多结构元和多尺度算法的特性，提出了一种基于小波增强的多结构元、多尺度边缘检测方法，用不同取向的结构元素对图像进行多尺度检测，并综合各尺度下的边缘，得到了噪声存在下的理想边缘。实验表明，本文方法边缘定位准确、轮廓清晰，保留了更多的图像细节，具有较强的抗噪能力。     

结合边缘编组的Hough变换直线提取

针对传统Hough变换用于直线检测存在的问题进行了细致的分析和归纳总结,在此基础上,提出一种结合边缘编组的Hough变换直线提取算法。该算法首先采用基于8邻域的边缘跟踪算法对Canny算子检测得到的边缘点进行编组;然后对每一个边缘组分别进行Hough变换,单独确定Hough变换原点和参数的取值范围。Hough变换过程中,采用迭代的"投票"方式,每次确定单一峰值点并删除对应像素。实验证明,该算法原理简单,能有效解决传统Hough变换存在的精度不高、计算复杂等问题。同时该算法具有较强的鲁棒性,可以有效处理不同类型的影像数据,适用于并行处理。     

基于多结构元的形态学边缘检测方法研究

针对传统边缘检测算子的缺点,研究了基于数学形态学的边缘检测方法,给出了基于多结构元的抗噪型形态学边缘检测算法的具体流程,进行了实验对比分析,表明该方法具有较好的边缘提取能力和抗噪性。     

一种基于灰度剖面分析的边缘提取新算法

针对影像中梯度较小的模糊边缘，提出了一种自适应梯度的概念和边缘检测算法。基于新的梯度概念，可以根据刀刃曲线的实际形状自适应地计算影像中每一点的梯度，比较理想地消除边缘的渐变效应(模糊)对边缘检测的不利影响。试验表明，这种梯度计算方法对模糊边缘的检测具有较好的效果。