A cloud layer‐sunshine model for estimating direct,diffuse and total solar radiation

A previous study (Suckling and Hay, 1976a) described a method for calculating hourly values of the direct and diffuse solar radiation for cloudless sky conditions. This paper presents an extension which incorporates the effects of clouds through the use of hourly values of cloud amount and type for up to four layers and hourly bright sunshine totals. The latter data provide a more accurate measure of the length of time the direct radiation of the sun is not attenuated by cloud. On an average, the cloud layer‐sunshine (CLS) model estimated daily total solar radiation at five Canadian locations to within ±15 per cent of the measured values. This was an improvement over an earlier model (Davies et al., 1975) based on cloud data alone, but the relative advantage, as well as the overall errors themselves, were diminished as the averaging period was increased to five and ten days. The CLS model has the additional advantage of calculating the separate direct and diffuse components of the total solar radiation.     

Analysis of 40 year records of solar radiation data in Shanghai,Nanjing and Hangzhou in Eastern China

Summary In this paper, we analyze global, direct and diffuse solar radiation data on a horizontal surface observed at stations in Shanghai, Nanjing and Hangzhou for the period of 1961 to 2000. The data include monthly averages of the daily clearness index (G/G₀: the ratio of global to extraterrestrial solar radiation) and the diffuse fraction (D/G: the ratio of diffuse to global solar radiation. The present study has processed and analyzed the data, including variables or statistics of mean, and annual monthly and daily total, the diurnal variation and the frequency of daily totals of global solar radiation. A correlation between daily values of clearness index and diffuse fraction is obtained and recommended correlation equations were calculated. The annual variations and trend of yearly series are analyzed for daily global, direct and diffuse radiation on a horizontal surface, as well as for daily clearness index and diffuse fraction in Shanghai, Nanjing and Hangzhou. The results show: 1) the east China is characterized by a decrease in global and direct radiation and a little increase in diffuse radiation and a negative linear relationship was obtained between clearness index and diffuse fraction. 2) The annual variations of global, direct and diffuse radiation for Shanghai, Nanjing and Hangzhou are similar with relative low values of global and direct radiation in June due to the Meiyu period. 3) The acceleration of air pollution and decrease of relative sunshine are the possible causes for the decrease of global and direct radiation.     

Energy Balance Of A Sparse Coniferous High-Latitude Forest Under Winter Conditions

Measurements carried out in Northern Finland on radiation and turbulent fluxes over a sparse, sub-arctic boreal forest with snow covered ground were analysed. The measurements represent late winter conditions characterised by low solar elevation angles. During the experiment (12–24 March 1997) day and night were about equally long. At low solar elevation angles the forest shades most of the snow surface. Therefore an important part of the radiation never reaches the snow surface but is absorbed by the forest. The sensible heat flux above the forest was fairly large, reaching more than 100 W m^-2. The measurements of sensible heat flux within and above the forest revealed that the sensible heat flux from the snow surface is negligible and the sensible heat flux above the forest stems from warming of the trees. A simple model for the surface energy balance of a sparse forest is presented. The model treats the diffuse and direct shortwave (solar) radiation separately. It introduces a factor that accounts for the shading of the ground at low solar elevation angles, and a parameter that deals with the partial transparency of the forest.Input to the model are the direct and diffuse incoming shortwave radiation.Measurements of the global radiation (direct plus diffuse incoming shortwaveradiation) above the forest revealed a considerable attenuation of the globalradiation at low solar elevation. A relation for the atmospheric turbidity asfunction of the solar elevation angle is suggested. The global radiation wassimulated for a three month period. For conditions with a cloud cover of lessthan 7 oktas good agreement between model predictions and measurementswere found. For cloud cover 7 and 8 oktas a considerable spread can beobserved. To apply the proposed energy balance model, the global radiationmust be separated into its diffuse and direct components. We propose a simpleempirical relationship between diffuse shortwave and global radiation asfunction of cloud cover.     

Estimating solar radiation on tilted surfaces with various orientations: a study case in Karaj (Iran)

Summary The aim of this study is the evaluation of models that estimate daily global solar radiation on tilted surfaces from that measured on horizontal surfaces. Global solar radiation incident on a tilted plane consists of three components: beam radiation, diffuse radiation and reflected radiation from the ground. The Klein (1977) method, modified by Andersen (1980), was used for estimating direct solar radiation incident on tilted surfaces and an isotropic model was used for estimating reflected solar radiation incident on a tilted plane. In contrast models for the diffuse radiation component show major differences, which justifies a validation study which has been done. Eight models for derivation of daily slope diffuse irradiance from daily horizontal diffuse irradiance were tested against recorded slope irradiances at Karaj (35°55′ N; 50°56′ E), Iran. The following models were included: Badescu (2002), Tian et al. (2001), Reindl et al. (1990), Skartveit and Olseth (1986), Koronakis (1986), Steven and Unsworth (1980), Hay (1979) and Liu and Jordan (1962). All the models use the same method for calculating beam radiation as well as ground reflected radiation. However, only diffuse component of radiation was compared. Statistical indices showed that Reindl’s model gives the most accurate prediction for the south-facing surface and Koronakis’s model performs best for the west-facing surface. The Relative Root Mean Square Errors (%RMSE), except for Steven and Unsworth’s model that has unacceptable results, for whole data range from 1.02 to 10.42%. In general, Reindl’s model produces the best agreement with the measured tilted data.     

1993—2013年中国地面太阳辐射的变化特征

根据1993—2013年中国15个省份16个站点的辐射观测数据,采用线性倾向估计分析了近20年来中国不同地区的地面太阳辐射的变化特征,并分析了散射系数（散射辐射和直接辐射之比）的变化情况。结果表明：1993—2013年间地面太阳总辐射在西部和东北地区呈上升趋势,在中部和东部地区呈下降趋势。直接辐射在中部地区呈上升趋势,在其他地区表现为下降趋势。散射辐射和散射系数除了新疆的乌鲁木齐和甘肃的兰州减小外,在所有地区几乎都呈上升趋势。散射辐射最大在东南沿海地区,最小在西北（新疆的乌鲁木齐）,但是散射系数在中东部地区相对较大。     

复杂地形下黑河流域的太阳辐射计算

基于数字高程模型(DEM)数据,在充分考虑了地形因子对太阳直接辐射和散射辐射的影响后,实际计算了起伏地形下黑河流域的太阳辐射。在忽略地表和大气之间的多次反射后,地表太阳总辐射计为三项:按起伏坡面上实际入射角考虑的太阳直接辐射、经过下垫面天空视角因子订正的坡面天空散射辐射和考虑周围地形反射效应的附加辐射。计算结果表明:局地地形起伏对太阳直接辐射、总辐射空间分布的影响非常强烈,使得复杂地形下不同坡向间总辐射和直接辐射平均计算差额十分显著,且太阳天顶角从较小增大至中等大小时,这两种平均计算差额均加大一倍多;在较小和中等大小太阳天顶角下,不同坡向间总辐射平均计算差额,均较相同条件下直接辐射平均计算差额为小,这是因为总辐射还包括了天空漫射和邻近地形反射辐射因子,这两个因子和坡面上太阳入射方位的变化共同影响地表入射太阳辐射;起伏地形主要使得太阳辐射在局地区域内背阴、向阳坡向间发生显著的重新分配。因此,在复杂地形地区进行太阳辐射计算时必须考虑地形的影响。     

宝坻太阳辐射资料可用性研究

应用典型的辐射资料质量检验方法、辐射数据变化特征分析、人工与器测日照对比分析及太阳总辐射与相关辐射要素间的统计分析对天津市宝坻国家级基本气象站站内的太阳辐射观测系统试运行期间的辐射观测数据进行了质量分析,结果表明,试运行期间数据到报情况理想,总、散射辐射观测数据的BSRN的质量检验合格率为100%,直接辐射合格率为85%,净辐射通过了仪器阀值质量检验;太阳辐射值及变化特征符合理论实际;人工与器测日照时数具有很好的线性相关性(R2=0.96),总辐射与日照时数及散射辐射之间的线性变化与历史经验结论吻合。总体来看,宝坻太阳辐射系统观测数据可用性较高,能够满足日常业务需求。     

起伏地形下浙江省散射辐射时空分异规律模拟

结合影响起伏地形下太阳散射辐射的天空因素与地面因素,通过基于数字高程模型（DEM）数据的起伏地形下天文辐射模型和地形开阔度模型,综合考虑地面因素对散射辐射的影响;基于常规地面气象站观测资料建立的水平面散射辐射模型,考虑天空因素对散射辐射的影响;建立了起伏地形下浙江省散射辐射分布式估算模型;逐月计算了浙江省散射辐射（100m×100m）的空间分布。结果表明：散射分量分布与地理地形因子、季风影响、大气透明程度有关,由高纬向低纬逐渐增加;季节分布特点为,夏季〉春季〉秋季〉冬季;坡度、坡向对散射辐射的分布影响小,但辐射值与开阔度呈正相关,各季辐射最大值分布在开阔度大处,最小值在开阔度最小处,不同季节有所伸缩。计算结果可以为气候变化和环境资源研究提供基础数据。     

长江三角洲地面太阳辐射变化和相关因素分析

通过对长江三角洲地区(南京,杭州,上海,合肥)1961-2000年辐射资料的比较,根据中国气象局编写的<气象辐射观测方法>对该地区年地面太阳辐射平均值进行计算,分析长江三角洲地区地面太阳辐射的长期变化及季节差异,并讨论长江三角洲地区两个重要城市杭州和南京的部分与地面太阳辐射息息相关的因子,分析长江三角洲地区直接辐射,散射辐射与总辐射的关系.结果表明:在40 a中长江三角洲地区4个代表城市总辐射长期变化分为两个阶段,1980s为谷值,谷值前有明显的下降趋势,后期总辐射变化趋势发生逆转,就所研究城市而言,1960s到1980s地面太阳总辐射的下降主要是由于直接辐射下降引起的.     

Theoretical meteorology and the operational meteorologist

Abstract

Values of incoming solar and long‐wave radiation measured at the vessel Quadra during the three phases of GATE are used to assess the daily performance of three models, one for solar and two for long‐wave radiation. The solar radiation model, which uses data on precipitable water and cloud amount at three levels in the atmosphere performed satisfactorily during the first phase but gave poor results in the other two phases when cumulonimbus became more dominant. Both the flux‐emissivity approach using measured and interpolated Upper air data and Paltridge's empirical procedure produced estimates of long‐wave radiation which compared very closely with the measurements.     

华南地面太阳辐射状况及其转折特征分析

利用华南地区1961—2003年的太阳总辐射、直接辐射和散射辐射资料分析了该地区地面太阳辐射状况,包括年际变化和季节变化,重点分析了该地区太阳总辐射在1980—1990年代期间的转折过程,并与全国平均状况进行对比。结果表明：1961—2003年,华南地区的总辐射和直接辐射整体呈下降趋势,散射辐射的变化不显著,与全国平均辐射状况的变化趋势一致。1983年之前,华南总辐射处于迅速下降阶段,之后发生转折开始回升,至2001年前后已经恢复到平均水平。华南地区总辐射和散射辐射的季节变化非常明显,夏季最高,春秋两季次之,冬季最低,一年中散射辐射的最高和最低值相比总辐射提前一个月出现。另外,结合云量和能见度资料初步分析了广州市地面太阳辐射的变化和转折过程,表明广州地面太阳总辐射的下降及转折过程主要与该地区的大气清洁程度相关。     

Influence of the total atmospheric optical depth and cloud cover on solar irradiance components

Broadband solar irradiance data obtained in the spectral range 400–940 nm at Kwangju, South Korea from 1999–2000 have been analyzed to investigate the effects of cloud cover and atmospheric optical depth on solar radiation components. Results from measurements indicate that the percentage of direct and diffuse horizontal components of solar irradiance depend largely on total optical depth (TOD) and cloud cover. During summer and spring, the percentages of diffuse solar irradiance relative to the global irradiance were 5.0% and 4.9% as compared to 2.2% and 3.0% during winter and autumn. The diffuse solar irradiance is higher than the direct in spring and summer by 24.2%, and 40.6%, respectively, which may largely be attributed to the attenuation (scattering) of radiation by heavy dust pollution and large cloud amount. In cloud-free conditions with cloud cover ≤2/10, the fraction of the direct and diffuse components were 66.0% and 34.0%, respectively, with a mean daily global irradiance value of 7.92±2.91 MJ m⁻² day⁻¹. However, under cloudy conditions (with cloud cover ≥8/10), the diffuse and direct fractions were 97.9% and 2.2% of the global component, respectively. The annual mean TOD under cloudless conditions (cloud cover≤2/10) yields 0.74±0.33 and increased to as much as 3.15±0.67 under cloudy conditions with cloud amount ≥8/10. An empirical formula is derived for estimating the diffuse and direct components of horizontal solar irradiance by considering the total atmospheric optical depth (TOD). Results from statistical models are shown for the estimation of solar irradiance components as a function of TOD with sufficient accuracy as indicated by low standard error for each solar zenith angle (SZA).     

Long-term variations of solar radiation in Europe

Presented are the results of the analysis of the series of seasonal and annual means of short-wave solar radiation measured at 180 actinometric stations of Europe in 1964–2010. It is demonstrated that there are two strongly pronounced periods, namely, the decrease from the early 1960s to the late 1980s and the increase in the subsequent 20 years. Total solar radiation decreased by 1.8% per 10 years on average during the first period and increased by 2.9% per 10 years during the second period. The increase in solar radiation during the second period is observed at the majority of stations due to the increase in the direct solar radiation (by 8.3% per 10 years on average). The diffuse radiation decreased by 3.1% on average for that period. The highest values of the ratio of the diffuse radiation to the direct one were registered in the 1980s–early 1990s.     

Relationships between photosynthetically active radiation and clearness index at Bloemfontein, South Africa

Summary Relationships between photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and solar radiation (SR) and between diffuse radiation and global radiation at Bloemfontein, South Africa were investigated. The ratio of PAR to SR (PAR/SR) has been reported from many places in the northern hemisphere, but there were not many PAR/SR measurements documented from the southern hemisphere, including the study region. Based on the present observations, mean PAR/SR in the region (0.48) was not exceptionally different from other reported data (0.45–0.50). The effects of sky condition on PAR/SR were also investigated and confirmed the previous findings. PAR/SR increased as the clearness index (K_T=ratio of global to extraterrestrial SR) decreased, as sky conditions varied from clear to cloudy. Thus, PAR/SR can be a simple function of the clearness index (the global PAR model). In this study, PAR/SR was explained by a quadratic function of K_T. For the relationship between diffuse and global radiation, a simple linear threshold diffuse PAR model, as a linear function of K_T, was proposed for the study region using long-term data of diffuse and global SR. Using the previous findings on the relationship between the ratio of diffuse to global SR (K_SR) and the ratio of diffuse to global PAR (K_PAR), at high K_T, K_PAR can be estimated as 30% higher than K_SR, while at low K_TK_PAR is equivalent to K_SR.     

我国散射辐射的气候计算方法及其分布特征

使用全国６４个日射站的散射辐射资料，首先计算与建立了各地１月、４月、７月和１０月的月散射辐射值与总云量、日照百分率之间的相关系数与经验关系式，并对经验关系式进行了方差检验。该经验关系式为：Ｄ＝Ｑ０（ｓ１＋０．０１）（ａ＋ｂＮ）。应用该经验关系式和２００多个地面气象站的资料，计算了各地的１月、４月、７月和１０月的散射辐射值。最后对我国四季散射辐射的分布及其年变化作简要的分析。     

A simplified scheme of the generalized layered radiative transfer model

In this paper, firstly, a simplified version （SGRTM） of the generalized layered radiative transfer model （GRTM） within the canopy, developed by us, is presented. It reduces the information requirement of inputted sky diffuse radiation, as well as of canopy morphology, and in turn saves computer resources. Results from the SGRTM agree perfectly with those of the GRTM. Secondly, by applying the linear superposition principle of the optics and by using the basic solutions of the GRTM for radiative transfer within the canopy under the condition of assumed zero soil reflectance, two sets of explicit analytical solutions of radiative transfer within the canopy with any soil reflectance magnitude are derived： one for incident diffuse, and the other for direct beam radiation. The explicit analytical solutions need two sets of basic solutions of canopy reflectance and transmittance under zero soil reflectance, run by the model for both diffuse and direct beam radiation. One set of basic solutions is the canopy reflectance αf （written as α1 for direct beam radiation） and transmittance βf （written as β1 for direction beam radiation） with zero soil reflectance for the downward radiation from above the canopy （i.e. sky）, and the other set is the canopy reflectance （αb） and transmittance βb for the upward radiation from below the canopy （i.e., ground）. Under the condition of the same plant architecture in the vertical layers, and the same leaf adaxial and abaxial optical properties in the canopies for the uniform diffuse radiation, the explicit solutions need only one set of basic solutions, because under this condition the two basic solutions are equal, i.e., αf = αb and βf = βb. Using the explicit analytical solutions, the fractions of any kind of incident solar radiation reflected from （defined as surface albedo, or canopy reflectance）, transmitted through （defined as canopy transmittance）, and absorbed by （defined as canopy absorptance） the canopy and other properties per     

Urban albedo as a function of the urban structure — A two-dimensional numerical simulation

Urban albedo change as a function of urban geometrical structure has been examined by using a two-dimensional urban block-canyon array model. The complex multiple reflections of incident photons in the urban canyon are simulated by using a Monte-Carlo method. The photons are tracked until they leave the canyon or are completely absorbed. In the model, the direct and diffuse components of incident solar radiation are introduced and the specular and isotropic reflection characteristics are considered for the relevant urban surfaces. The result shows that the urban albedo decreases as the urban irregularity increases as indicated by the model experiment of Aida (1982). The dependence of albedo on the incident solar zenith angle observed in the experiment is also confirmed for various urban models.As an application, some actual urban structures in the Marunouchi area in Tokyo are examined. Urban planning for absorption and reflection of solar radiation in urban areas is also discussed based on the analysis of the change in albedo with canyon dimensions and solar zenith angle.     

五道梁地区的辐射特征

本文分析了1986年中美联合考察期间五道梁站的地面辐射平衡的气候学特征。五道梁地区夏季直接太阳辐射强,空气洁净,大气透明度好。太阳辐射在大气中的削弱以分子散射和臭氧吸收为主。总辐射中以散射为主。光谱反射率中太阳短波反射率为0.13,太阳红外反射率为0.25,雪面上二者接近;反射率受土壤湿度影响明显,在太阳高度角较小时,各波段反射率有不同的变化趋势。地表比辐射率约为0.90。地表净辐射和地面热源强度大。太阳紫外辐射大,占总辐射的比例也大。     

从宽带太阳直接辐射小时或日曝辐量反演气溶胶光学厚度研究

从宽带的太阳直接辐射1天或1小时累计量(曝辐量)气象观测资料反演气溶胶光学厚度的一个有效方法是很有用的.作者把太阳曝辐量与"等效"的瞬时太阳直接辐射关联起来,建立了一个与曝辐量"等效"的瞬时太阳直接辐射的模式;应用该模式和一个"等效"波长模式,发展了一个从太阳直接曝辐量反演气溶胶光学厚度的方法.作者还从试验上比较分析了由某时刻的宽带太阳直接辐射、每小时或1天的太阳直接辐射曝辐量反演得到的气溶胶光学厚度以及由太阳光度计探测的气溶胶光学厚度.试验结果表明,由日太阳直接辐射曝辐量反演得到的气溶胶光学厚度可理解为辐射加权的日平均光学厚度.     

福建省散射辐射的计算方法及其分布特征

提出了综合考虑日照百分率和总云量来计算散射辐射的公式。将散射辐射Ｄ除以日照百分率Ｓ１，称其为净散射辐射。同时求出各月及年的净散射辐射与当地天文辐射的比值和总云量的相关系数ｒ。各月与年的相关系数均为正值，且ｒ均大于ｒ０．０１。在此基础上建立计算散射辐射的经验公式：Ｄ＝Ｓ１Ｑｏｅ＾ａ＋ｂＮ，式中Ｄ为散射辐射；Ｓ１为日照百分率；Ｑｏ为天文辐射；Ｎ为总云量；ａ和ｂ为经验系数。使用该经验公式求得福建省所有市