Importance of fracturing during retro-metamorphism of eclogites

Presented textural and petrological data show that the deep to intermediate continental crust may fracture and that microfractures are the locus of fluid and mass transfer necessary for retrograde metamorphism. Kyanite eclogites from Ulsteinvik, Norway, underwent partial retrogression to granulite and amphibolite facies assemblages during near-isothermal exhumation from depths equivalent to more than 2.0 GPa at temperatures of 700–800 °C. Plagioclase-bearing assemblages, rich in hydrous phases, formed along margins of eclogite lenses and along mesoscopic fracture systems. Hydrated zones are from 1–50 cm thick, with adjacent wall-rock eclogite replaced by symplectites. At a low degree of reaction, the secondary minerals in the wall-rock are found along intra- and intergranular microfractures (typically 50–100 μm wide). Minerals filling the microfractures include orthopyroxene–plagioclase–spinel in garnet; plagioclase–sapphirine, plagioclase–corundum and plagioclase–spinel in kyanite; and diopside–plagioclase in omphacite. The microfractures are often arranged en echelon and are connected through microfaults. Releasing bends filled with amphibole and spinel form along microfaults in garnet. The faulting and fracturing caused localized chemical change in garnet: the damage zones close to faults are enriched in FeO and MnO with steep compositional gradients (8 wt% FeO over <20 μm). These FeO- and MnO-enriched zones form wedge-like structures around the tip of the faults (horsetail structures) and rose- or flame-like structures at sticking points along faults. They may represent examples of stress-induced chemical transport during fracture propagation. The change from dry to amphibole-bearing assemblages at the tip of the fracture, and fractures ending in splays of fluid inclusions trails, reflect the involvement of a fluid phase during fracture propagation. This suggests that the ‘dry’ granulite facies retrogression was also driven by fluid infiltration and that metamorphism at depth in collision zones may not be controlled by pressure and temperature alone.     

琼东南盆地长昌凹陷三维地震区中新统微观构造成因探讨

基于高精度三维地震资料的精细解释和方差体顺层切片技术,在琼东南盆地长昌凹陷中新统首次发现高密度小断裂,它们近SN走向,断距6～28m,长0.5～4km,倾角约60°.这些小断裂既不是渐新统继承性断裂,也不是近期热点讨论的多边形断层,而是在中新世特定地质条件下由局部引张形成的微观构造.其成因为:1)中新世琼东南盆地处于坳...     

成都金沙遗址区全新统震积岩的发现及其地质意义

震积岩是灾变性事件岩的典型代表,是具有震积构造和震积岩序列有一定成因联系的一组岩石的总称。成都金沙遗址区全新统地层中首次发现震积岩,该地层自下而上为底部砾石层、中部暗色(含炭)泥质层、上部褐黄色土壤层,整体属河流冲积物。通过野外观察,研究区发育一组走向SE120°的正断层,断层两盘的底部砾石层顶界面有明显的错断。构成地垒构造;在IT6511、IT6610层位中的断层带中见明显阶梯状断裂,其以张性正断层为主,断距约为10~90cm。在靠近阶梯状断裂的IT6512、IT6613-6614层位中发现一系列地震成因的软沉积物变形标志及破裂构造,包括砂土液化(脉)、液化卷曲变形构造、负载构造、微断裂、地裂缝、震塌岩等。分析认为这些软沉积物变形标志及破裂构造是由同期地壳活动引起的地震作用形成的。金沙遗址区震积岩的发现,对研究四川盆地全新世以来的古环境有重要意义。     

东营凹陷富有机质烃源岩顺层微裂隙的发育与油气运移

根据岩心观察，在东营凹陷沙河街组三段下亚段和沙河街组四段上亚段烃源岩中，发现大量顺层面分布的微裂隙，且大部分为亮晶方解石所充填。裂隙发育段在平面上的展布较广，在纵向上始于2900～3000m左右，与烃源岩成熟阶段对应。岩石学和有机地化研究表明，裂隙一般限于高有机质丰度、纹层理发育的页岩中，而有机质丰度较低、具块状层理的泥岩一般不发育，表现出较强的非均质性。裂隙发育与有机质丰度以及成熟度的关系表明，烃类生成是水平裂隙产生的主要原因。进入成熟阶段的富有机质烃源岩大量生烃，造成孔隙流体压力迅速上升，并最终导致顺层裂隙的产生。由于沙河街组三段下亚段和沙河街组四段上亚段以泥、页岩互层为特征，因而裂隙发育的非均质性造成裂隙发育段与裂隙不发育段的纵向叠置，并决定了其排烃过程以近似于三角洲前缘砂泥岩互层的排烃方式，从而一定程度提高了烃源岩的排烃速率和排烃效率。     

中国大陆科学钻探（CCSD）主孔微断层的空间展布和脆性变形构造应力场分析

CCSD主孔岩芯中发育有十分丰富的脆性微断层,孔深5158m以上,按其空间分布,可将其主体归纳为北北东向微断层系、北西向微断层系、北东向微断层组和近于东西向微断层组等四个微断层系（组）和SEE-NWW向水平挤压构造应力场、NE-SW向水平挤压构造应力场等二期区域构造应力场。SEE-NWW向水平挤压构造应力场贯穿于高压-超高压变质岩折返的全过程,表明在折返过程中,深层韧性变形阶段的构造应力场和浅层脆性变形阶段的构造应力场,具有高度的一致性。但流劈理和微断层的极点等值线图表明,韧性变形阶段的变形较脆性变形阶段的变形简单,深部发生的基本上是一种以逆冲型剪切应变为主导的变形,而浅部脆性变形域,除继承性的逆冲型剪切应变外,往往叠加有后期的构造伸展作用和走滑作用,因此具有更为复杂的应变图象。NE~SW向水平挤压构造应力场,在时间上晚于SEE~NWW向水平挤压构造应力场,它是导致先存的北北东向逆冲型流劈理发生自北东向南西方向滑动的主因。对比不同岩石类型的微断层和流劈理的极点等值线图,无论是极密类型,还是极密的分布,均不受岩石类型的影响,说明微断层和流劈理的形成与岩石类型（岩性）无关,而主要受构造因素制约,因此,运用微断层和流劈理（叶理）相结合的分析法,研究高压-超高压变质岩带折返阶段的构造应力场和动力学过程,有其他方法无可替代的效果。     

沁水盆地南部煤储层显微裂隙发育的影响因素

为研究沁水盆地南部3号和15号煤储层显微裂隙的发育情况,借助扫描电镜显微裂隙分析、荧光显微镜显微裂隙统计、X射线衍射分析等手段,总结了地应力、煤岩显微组分、煤变质程度、煤中矿物质与显微裂隙发育的关系,探讨了影响煤储层显微裂隙发育主要因素。结果表明,该区煤储层显微裂隙较为发育,显微裂隙密度一般为7~59条/9 cm2,以C型和D型裂隙为主,扫描电镜下常见张性裂隙、剪性裂隙,对煤储层渗透性贡献较大,内生裂隙较少见。显微裂隙通常发育于镜质组中,裂隙密度随变质程度的升高表现出降低的趋势,煤中矿物的充填作用对于显微裂隙的发育影响较大,对煤样渗透性造成了直接破坏作用,地应力场的方向和大小控制着外生显微裂隙的开合程度,进而对煤储层的渗透性产生影响。因此认为,地应力和煤中矿物是影响该区煤储层显微裂隙发育的主要因素。      

Interpreting fracture development from diagenetic mineralogy and thermoelastic contraction modeling

Four sets of thin-section scale, Mode I (open mode), cemented microfractures are present in sandstone from the Eocene Misoa Formation, Maracaibo basin, Venezuela. The first set of microfractures is intragranular (F1), formed early during compaction and are filled with quartz cement precipitated at temperatures equal to or higher than 100 °C. The second set of microfractures (F2) is cemented by bituminite–pyrite, formed at temperatures between 60 and 100 °C, and are associated with kerogen maturation and hydrocarbon migration from underlying overpressured source rocks. The third set of microfractures (F3) is fully cemented by either quartz cement or calcite cement. The former has fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures between 149 and 175 °C. These temperatures are mostly higher than maximum burial temperatures (160 °C), suggesting that upward flow, caused by a pressure gradient, transported silica vertically which crystallized into the fractures. Upward decompression may have also caused a P_CO2 drop, which, at constant temperature, allowed simultaneous carbonate precipitation into the third microfracture set. The fourth set of thin-section scale microfractures (F4) is open or partially cemented by siderite–hematite and other iron oxides. The presence of hematite and iron oxides in microfractures is evidence for oxidizing conditions that may be associated with the uplift of the Misoa formation. In order to time and place constraints on the depth of formation of the fourth set of microfractures, we have coupled published quartz cementation kinetic algorithms with uniaxial strain equations and determined if, in fact, they could be associated with the uplift of the formation. Our results suggest that thermoelastic contraction, caused by the formation's uplift, erosion, and consequent cooling is a feasible mechanism for the origin of the last fracture set. Hence, we infer that meteoric water invasion into the fractures, at the end of the uplift, cause the precipitation of oxides and the transformation of siderite to hematite.     

渤中凹陷深层储层裂隙发育程度实验研究

渤中凹陷作为渤海深层油气勘探最现实的有利区,其资源潜力和勘探前景有待得到进一步验证.由于深部潜山储层地质情况复杂,岩性繁多且差异明显,对深部有效储层类型及分布的研究是渤中地区深层勘探的关键.本文通过对渤中地区太古宇二长花岗岩、片麻状花岗岩、花岗质片麻岩、斜长角闪岩、古生界灰岩以及中生界安山岩6种潜山代表性岩石,开展张应...     

四川峨眉晚侏罗世湖泊沉积中震积岩的发现及其意义

四川峨眉川主乡上侏罗统的震积岩由微型断裂层、微型褶皱层、碎块层、均一层组成,总厚0.69m.上覆和下伏地层皆为受地震影响的、水平层理保存完好的未震动层.上述自下而上的震积岩层序特征,反映了地震震波对水和沉积界面以下的沉积物因压实作用不同和变形能力差异而形成的不同沉积构造.     

Sand and silt grains: Predetermination of their formation and properties by microfractures in quartz

Examination of quartz from plutonic source rocks, sediments and soils, using both optical and scanning electron microscopes, reveals that the mineral is, almost always, cut by sets of partially healed, subplanar, subparallel microfractures dividing it into sheets typically one to a few micrometres thick. The structure, which originates in source rocks, is not due to crystal cleavage although it does show weak crystallo‐graphic influence in its directions. One to several sets of microfractures, intersecting at varying angles, can be present in any one quartz crystal. The microfractures vary in quality like cleavages; separation takes place readily along some, less so along others.

In superficial environments, the ease with which microfractures can be reopened largely controls the durability of quartz and the degree to which comminution can proceed. However, this type of breakage must cease when grains are one sheet thick (about 2–20 Mm in diameter). Hence quartz suddenly changes from being the dominant mineral in silt fractions to a normally minor constituent of clay fractions. The shape of grains depends largely on the number of (and angles between) microfrac‐ture sets present in the parent quartz. Most quartz grain surfaces represent fractures whose details characterize the pre‐emergent history of the quartz rather than sedimentary environments.     

中国大陆科学钻探主孔2000米以上脆性变形构造应力场

在主孔2000米之内，存在复杂的脆性破裂系统和构造应力场。根据其充填物的特征，可划分为由石英、方解石和绿泥石等矿物充填的微破裂，发育石英、方解石等矿物薄膜或擦痕线理的微破裂和既无矿物充填、也无矿物薄膜的微破裂等3种不同类型的脆性应变现象，它们依次代表早、中、晚和深、中、浅3个不同构造层次的脆性变形。初步分析表明脆性变形阶段存在有以南东东-北西西向为主导的挤压作用、北东-南西向的区域挤压作用、南北向挤压作用和垂向伸展作用等4期构造应力场。郯庐断裂东侧的现代构造应力场在区域上具有极大的稳定性。在脆性和脆-韧性转换带，制约苏鲁高压-超高压变质带侵位的主导应力作用方式为自南东东往北西西方向的挤压，它在时间和空间上具有一定的稳定性。     

Microfracturing and regional stress field: a study of the preferred orientations of fluid-inclusion planes in a granite from the Massif Central,France

A study of the deformation of a granitic massif indicates a relationship between palaeostress fields and the geometry of microfractures as defined by fluid-inclusion trails, that is, healed microfractures. A statistical study of the distribution of the trails leads to the following conclusions: trails exhibit several distinct preferred orientations on the scale of a grain, which may be observed in many samples; the orientations of the trails are similar to those of micro- and mesoscale fractures in the granite; and the dominant trail direction is parallel to the main direction of regional shortening. Thus, fluid-inclusion trails are mode I cracks which can be used as excellent markers of palaeostress fields.     

煤中显微裂隙的成因类型及其研究意义

分析、归纳了大量的扫描电子显微镜观测结果，以煤岩学、构造地质学研究为基础，依据煤中显微裂隙的形态，大小、排列组合等发育特征，将内生裂隙进一步划分为失水裂隙，缩聚裂隙、静压裂隙，将外生裂隙进一步划分为张性裂隙，压性裂隙，剪性裂隙，松弛裂隙，描述了各类隙的发育特征，探讨了裂隙的演化，识别和影响裂隙发育的因素，裂隙成因类型的研究，有助于判断不同裂隙对煤储层渗透率的贡献。     

Brittle deformation in the Afikpo Basin （Southeast Nigeria）： Evidence for a terminal Cretaceous extensional regime in the Lower Benue Trough, Nigeria

This paper deals with the regional and structural framework of the Cretaceous rocks in the Afikpo Basin located in the southeastern part of the Lower Benue Trough. Results from regional tectonics are presented together with those of the microtectonic analysis of microfaults in the Owutu-Afikpo-Adadama area in the basin. The Owutu-Afikpo-Adadama ridge at the north-central part of the basin marks the boundary between the Late Cenomanian-Turonian-Conianian sediments and the Campanian-Maastrichtian sandstones. This ridge trends N45°E on average and is faulted in three main directions, namely: (1) N-S normal faults; (2) NE-SW strike-slip faults; and (3) NW-SE strike-slip faults. The faulted rocks along these brittle discontinuities are mainly cataclastics with internal fracture cleavage and sigmoidal quartz mosaics that are reminiscent of extensional deformation. The cataclasites often bear slickenside striations.     

微支撑剂对页岩油气的增产机理及选配原则

水力压裂是页岩油气增产的主要手段,其核心是向储层连续泵入压裂液迫使储层产生水力裂缝/缝网形成油气运移高效通道,从而达到油气增产的目的。相较人工主缝,微裂缝具有数量大、缝宽小、走向复杂等特点,常规支撑剂无法对其形成有效支撑,如何提高微裂缝的导流能力是进一步提高页岩油气产能的关键。微缝导流能力实验表明:微支撑剂嵌入页岩裂缝表面导致一定程度的渗透率损害,但支撑微裂缝的渗透率仍比页岩基质渗透率高出2～3个数量级,仍可为页岩油气运移提供有效渗流通道。本文系统分析了微支撑剂对微裂缝的支撑特性、微支撑剂的长距离输运性能及辅助降滤等特征,提出了微支撑剂对致密油气增产的内在机制。结合我国致密油气储层基质孔隙尺度,形成了考虑微裂缝开度及基质孔隙尺寸的微支撑剂选配原则。     

鄂尔多斯盆地上三叠统延长组长4+5油层组中的古地震记录

鄂尔多斯盆地上三叠统延长组长4+5油层组湖泊三角洲前缘沉积中同生变形构造十分发育.通过对岩心观察及各种资料的综合分析,认为砂球、砂枕、球-枕构造、微断层递变层、微裂缝、液化卷曲变形等同生变形构造主要是由震积液化作用形成的.震积作用沉积可分为A、B、C、D、E等5个单元,分别组合形成ABCD型、BCD型或CD型、AB型、BCE型或BE型、BEBE型5种沉积序列类型,其中BCD型(CD型)和AB型最为发育.通过对古构造的分析,认为晚三叠世鄂尔多斯盆地拗陷中心的北西向基底"活化"及北西、北东向同生正断层的活动是导致该区古地震形成的主要原因.     

Experimental studies relating to microfracture in sandstone

A fundamental understanding of the relation between stress concentrations at grain contacts and microfractures in granular aggregates is obtained through two-dimensional photomechanical model studies and is tested through observational studies of experimentally deformed sandstone discs, glass beads, and quartz sand.In uncemented aggregates, the state of stress in each grain is controlled by the manner in which the applied load is transmitted across grain contacts. The angles between lines connecting pairs of contacts and the axis of the principal load acting at the boundaries of the aggregate determine which of all contacts will be most highly stressed or “critical”. Microfractures follow that maximum principal stress trajectory which connects critical contacts, and they propagate through those points where the magnitude of the local maximum stress difference is the greatest. Microfractures, therefore, are extension fractures. It then follows that both the locations and orientations of fractures can be predicted if the state of stress in the grains is known.Positioning of critical contacts depends primarily on sorting, packing, grain shapes, and the boundary load conditions applied to the aggregate. Some critical contacts and, therefore, microfractures tend to join together in a series or “chain”. Orientations of chains are most strongly influenced by the direction of the maximum compressive load at the boundary of the aggregate. A hydrostatic load applied on the boundaries of an aggregate can cause microfracturing within grains. Orientations for microfractures and contact lines are random in poorly sorted aggregates, but they are influenced by packing in well sorted aggregates.Grains of cemented aggregates are more highly stressed at their centers than at contacts. By analogy, microfracture orientations depend strongly on the position of the greatest load axis and only slightly on the low-magnitude stress concentrations at contacts. These microfractures parallel the greatest principal stress trajectory in regions where the magnitude of the maximum stress difference is greatest. These observations lead to the conclusion that fractures in grains of cemented aggregates are also extension fractures and should exhibit a higher degree of preferred orientation than in uncemented counterparts.These conclusions hold when cementing materials have about the same elastic moduli as the grains. Cements may be so weak that the aggregate behaves as if it were uncemented in terms of microfracture fabric, or so stiff that the major part of the load is transmitted by the cement, and the composite is no longer an aggregate in the mechanical sense.     

鄂尔多斯盆地富黄探区西部长6裂缝特征及控制因素

富黄探区西部长6裂缝特征及控制因素研究始终是勘探工作中的难点之一.通过对岩心和薄片中裂缝的观测统计、研究认为:宏观裂缝主要属于不受局部构造控制的区域裂缝,且以张性缝为主,垂直缝约占90％,约50％的裂缝未充填,属于开启缝;微观裂缝多属构造成因,成岩微裂缝较少,大多数微裂缝为有效缝.该区长6储层中微裂缝主要分布在浊积扇扇中边部,表现出较明显的“相控”性.滑塌构造、重力变形构造等的诱发机制可能是形成微裂缝的主要因素之一.岩性为裂缝发育奠定了基础,孔渗性变化对于该区长6储层裂缝发育有明显的控制因素.     

不同煤体结构煤的孔隙-裂隙分形特征及其对渗透性的影响

煤的孔隙-裂隙结构特征是研究储层渗透性的关键问题。为了定量描述孔隙-裂隙结构的复杂程度,以黄陇侏罗纪煤田永陇矿区郭家河井田原生结构煤和碎裂结构煤为研究对象,基于压汞实验数据和扫描电镜（SEM）图像,采用Menger分形模型和计盒维数方法,分别计算不同煤体结构煤的孔隙-裂隙分形维数;同时采用不同孔径段的孔隙体积比作为权重值,计算得到孔隙综合分形维数,探讨孔隙-裂隙结构分形维数和渗透率之间的关系。研究结果表明,脆性构造变形作用对孔隙整体复杂性,裂隙孔、渗流孔复杂性以及微观裂隙复杂程度均具有积极改造作用,对吸附孔结构复杂性具有均一化作用;微观裂隙分形维数与渗透率具有较高非线性关系,脆性构造作用改造下形成的碎裂煤,其具有的孔隙-裂隙结构优势配比是决定储层高渗透性的关键。因此,建议优先考虑弱脆性变形的碎裂结构煤为主体的断层、向斜和背斜区域进行煤层气抽采。      

Feldspar albitization in Cretaceous non-marine mudrocks, Gyeongsang Basin, Korea

Plagioclases and K-feldspars in the sandstones and mudrocks of the Cretaceous non-marine Gyeongsang Basin, Korea, were partially to completely albitized. The preservation of fresh plagioclase grains in early micrite-cemented sandstones suggests the diagenetic origin of albite. Albitization textures in mudrocks were examined using backscattered electron images. In contrast to completely albitized plagioclase grains in sandstones, those in mudrocks are mostly partially albitized. It suggests that mudrocks can be more useful for a provenance study than sandstones by preserving detrital minerals better. K-feldspar is unaltered to partially albitized in both sandstones and mudrocks. In mudrocks albitization starts preferentially along microfractures, cleavages and grain margins. Albitization along grain margins seems to be a characteristic feature in mudrocks where development of microfractures in silt-sized feldspar grains by physical compaction is limited by clayey matrix as well as by overpressure. The extent of albitization in mudrocks is mainly controlled by composition of the detrital plagioclase. Mudrocks containing calcic plagioclase grains tend to be more extensively albitized than those containing sodic varieties.